Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samandla oLawulo loMgaqo-siseko

Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ongoonkundla zikarhulumente kuxhomekeke kumgaqo-siseko owamiselwa ngowe-1787. IGatya III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. Ladala isebe logwebo njengengalo elinganayo karhulumente, libeka igunya lokugweba kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nayo nayiphi na iNkundla yezomthetho ephantsi ingamisela. Oku kwahlulwa komthetho kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho nalinye isebe elinegunya elingathintelwanga kutolikwa okanye ukusetyenziswa komthetho wesizwe. Abameli baqonda ukuba icandelo lobujajiji elingoondi bomthetho liyimfuneko ekulondolozeni umthetho kulo lonke ilizwe elinohlanga olwahlukeneyo nolwalwandayo.

Iinkundla zomanyano zifumana igunya kuzo zombini izibonelelo zomGaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho. IBhunga linamandla okuchaza igunya leenkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente, eziye zakhokelela kwinkqubo egqunywe ngomaleko namhlanje. UMgaqo-siseko ukwandisa amandla omthetho karhulumente kumatyala aqukunjelwa phantsi koMgaqo-siseko, imimiselo yorhulumente, izivumelwano, kunye neengxubangxubano phakathi kwamazwe okanye phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo. Lo mmandla uthetha ukuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenza njengendawo yokuqala yokucombulula imicimbi echaphazela umgaqo-mthetho wesizwe.

Umgaqo wohlolo lomthetho, omiselwe ku Madison -1803], unika iinkundla zesizwe amandla okuvakalisa imithetho ngaphandle komthetho. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zowiso-mthetho kunye nezolawulo zihlale zikwimida yomgaqo-siseko. Uhlolo lwejaji lujongo olubalulekileyo kumandla karhulumente kwaye luqinisa indima yeenkundla zorhulumente njengabalondolozi bolawulo lwe-gqeba.

Ukwakhiwa kweNkundla yoManyano

Iinkundla Zesithili: Umgangatho Wokuchotshelwa Kwetyala

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yephondo isebenza kwimigangatho emithathu, iinkundla zesithili zisebenza njengendawo yokungena yamatyala amaninzi. Kukho izithili ezimalunga nama-99 zezenkundla yorhulumente enqumla i-United States kunye nemimandla yayo, nganye ubuncinane inenkundla enye yesithili. Ezi nkundla zisingatha imicimbi yoluntu neyolwaphulo-mthetho equkunjelwa phantsi komthetho wephondo. Abagwebi benkundla yesithili bajonge iityala, balawule kwiinkalo, kwaye bakhupha izigqibo ezinyanzelelayo ezimisela iqonga lokubhenela.

Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, iinkundla zesithili zijonge ukubekwa kwetyala, ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, nokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokwalo. Abatshutshisi abavela kwiSebe leSigwebo banikela ubungqina, ngoxa amagqwetha athethelela abamangalelwa. Ijaji yesithili iqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo engokwasemthethweni iyalandelwa kwaye amalungelo ommangalelwa akhuselekile ngalo lonke ixesha. Kumatyala amakhaya, iinkundla zesithili ziyayiva imimiselo ebandakanya imimiselo yomthetho, imibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko, kunye namatyala apho amaqela ahlala kumaphondo awahlukeneyo, kunye nemali exanduva angaphaya kwee-R35 000 (iiii-500).

Iinkundla zezibheno: Umgangatho wezicelo

IiNkundla zeZibheno ezili-13 zaseUnited States zihlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla zesithili kwimimandla yazo. Ezi nkundla aziqhubeli matsha okanye zive ubungqina obutsha. Endaweni yoko, iinkundla ezintathu zihlolisisa ingxelo esuka kwinkundla esezantsi ukuze zifumanise ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenzeka na ezichaphazela iziphumo zetyala. Iinkundla ze-Appellate zingaqinisekisa, zibuye zibuye, okanye ziphinde ziphinde zibekwe amatyala emva kwiinkundla zesithilinge lokulungisa iinkundla ezithe gqolo.

Iinkundla zezibheno zinendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni umthetho wesizwe ngokukhupha iimbono ezibhaliweyo ezitolika imimiselo namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko. Ezi mbono zibopha iinkundla zesithili phakathi kwesiphaluka kwaye zisoloko ziphembelela iinkundla zeziphaluka kwezinye iziphaluka. Xa iinkundla zesiphaluka zingavumelani nomthetho osemthethweni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isenokungenelela ukuze isombulule loo ngxabano ize imisele umthetho wesizwe olinganayo.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

INkundla Ephakamileyo ihleli kwincopho yejaji yesizwe. Ilawula igunya elisemthethweni kumatyala amaninzi, ikhetha malunga ne - 1% yezibongozo ezinikezelwa nyaka ngamnye ukuze zihlolwe ngokupheleleyo. INkundla inika iCertiori xa ityala liphakamisa imbambano ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni, xa iinkundla zesiphaluka ziphumeze imithetho engqubanayo, okanye xa imibandela ebandakanyekileyo ibalulekile kwisizwe. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sigqibelela kwimibuzo yomthetho karhulumente kwaye sibopha zonke iinkundla eziphantsi.

INkundla ePhakamileyo ikwagcina igunya lokuqala kudidi olulinganiselweyo lwamatyala, kuquka iimbambano phakathi kwamatyala. Oku kuyinto enqabileyo, kodwa xa kusenzeka, iNkundla isebenza njengenkundla yamatyala enenkosi ekhethekileyo emiselwe ukuqokelela ubungqina nokuncomela. INkundla i̱ imisela imithetho engotoliko lomgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho-mthetho wesizwe omisela ukumisela ukumiselwa komthetho ngaphaya kwelizwe lonke.

Inkqubo Yokunyanzeliswa Komthetho Kwinkundla Yomanyano

Uphando Nokungxwelerha

Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho karhulumente kuqalisa kudala ngaphambi kokuba ityala lifike kwinkundla yenkundla. Amasebe agunyazisa umthetho afana neFederal Bureau of Investigation, i-Enforcement Administration, i-Bureau of Alcohol Tood Divice Shorms kunye ne-Explosives, kunye noKhuselo lwaseHomelal aphengulula uphando olurhaneyo lokwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente. La masebe aqokelela ubungqina ngokuhlola, ukuphendla, udliwano-ndlebe, kunye nohlalutyo olungokwezinkcitho. Icandelo le-mali-mthetho kufuneka livumelane ukukhuselwa komgaqo-siseko sokuphengwa nokukhuselwa komthetho okungekho ngqiniweyo nokungaqinisekiswa phantsi komthetho okunga.

Xa abaphengululi bekholelwa ukuba kukho ubungqina obaneleyo, lo mbandela ubhekiswa kwiAttley ’ iOfisi yeSithili soMgaqo-siseko. Abatshutshisi boMasipala, abaziwa njengoMncedili we-U.S. Attorney, bavavanya ubungqina bokufumanisa ukuba ityala lifanele libekwe na. Abatshutshisi basebenzisa iPrinples yeSizwe sobuzwe [, nto leyo efuna ukuqwalaselwa kwamandla obungqina, ukuqikelelo, ukuqina kwetyala, ukusetyenziswa kobungeyo ubungebobu-rriminal. Lo msebenzi wokugcina isango uqinisekisa ukuba oovimba benkundla belizwe bagcine iimeko ezikhoyo.

Iinkokeli Ezinkulu

Kumacala ahlasileyo, uMphengululo wesihlanu ufuna ukuba izityholo zibekwe ngokumangalelwa ngabachopheli-tyala abazukileyo. Inkundla ephakamileyo yabachopheli-tyala iquka abantu abali-16 ukuya kwabangama-23 abava ubungqina obunikelwa ngumtshutshisi emva kweminyango evaliweyo. Ngokungafaniyo namatyala avavanywayo, amagxamesi awayigqibi ityala okanye ukuba amsulwa. Bagqiba kuphela ukuba kukho unobangela onokuba ukho wokukholelwa ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho luye senziwa kwaye lowo umangalelweyo uyaluvuma. Ukuba inkoliso yabamangalelwa bayavuma, banikela isibhengezo esiyinyaniso setyala , esityhola ummangalelwa ngokucacileyo.

Inkqubo ezukileyo yabachopheli-tyala isebenza ngokufihlakeleyo ukukhusela amangqina, ukukhuthaza ubungqina obunyanisekileyo, nokuphepha ukulumkisa abajoliswe ekusabeni. Abameli abanalo ilungelo lokunikela ubungqina okanye amangqina anqamlezileyo phambi kwe-appine e-appine. Olu nyathelo lunye luncedile luye lwatsala ukugxekwa kumagqwetha akhuselayo namagunya enkululeko yasekuhlaleni, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasixhasa ngokuqhubekayo inkqubo entle yabachopheli-tyala ngokuvisisana neemfuno zomGaqo-siseko.

Ulungiso kunye nokuqhubekeka kovavanyo

Emva kokumangalelwa, ummangalelwa uvela phambi komgwebi wesithili sesizwe ukuze agwetywe. Kweli tyala, inkundla ifunda izityholo, icebisa ummangalelwa ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko, icela isicelo. Ummangalelwa usenokumangalelwa enetyala, kungekhona ityala, okanye, ngemvume yenkundla, nolo imastiere. Isibongozo esinetyala sikhokelela ngqo ekugwetyweni. Isibongozo esingeso simisela iqonga lokubekwa kwetyala nokuvavanywa kwetyala.

Ityala lenkundla yephondo lilawulwa yiMimiselo yoManyano yePhondo kunye neMimiselo yeNkqutyana yeNkcubeko yoLuntu. Le mithetho imisela amaxesha okuzimela, iimbopheleleko zokufumana, kunye nokuqhuba. inyanise inkqubo yezombilini ifuna omabini amacala ukutshintshisana ngobungqina kunye noluhlu lwamangqina. Abatshutshisi kufuneka batyhile ubungqina bokuchana kwetyala phantsi BRAdy v. , ngelixa amagqwetha okukhusela kufuneka atyhile ubungqina obuthile njengamangqina okanye izikhuseli eziphene.

Imirhumo yangaphambili ingalungisa amatyala ngaphandle kokuvavanywa okanye inciphe imiba yokuvavanywa kwetyala. Iinkqubo eziqhelekileyo ziquka ukuthatha inyathelo lokucinezela ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuchasene noMthetho weSine woLawulo oluHlaziweyo, ukuthatha inyathelo lokulahla ubungqina obunganelanga, nokuthatha inyathelo lokuguqula indawo. Abagwebi besithili balawula ezi ndawo zisekelwe kwiimeko ezibhalwe phantsi kwaye, xa kukho iimpikiswano eziziinyani, iindlebe ezicacileyo.

Inkqubo Yokuvavanywa

Iimvavanyo zomanyano ziyaqhubeka phantsi kwemithetho engqongqo elungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba kulungile kwaye kuthembekile. IsiHlaliso seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa banelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza naphambi kwetyala likawonke wonke phambi kwenkundla engakhethiyo ekhethwe kwisithili apho ulwaphulo-mthetho lwenzekile. Ukukhethwa kwe Jury kubandakanya ukuhlaza okunzima, ngexesha apho amagqwetha kunye nabagwebi babuza abaza kuba ngabagwebi ukuba baphawule ikhethe okanye ikhethe. Icala ngalinye lingenza ucelomngeni olungasikelwanga sisigxina setyala kunye nenani elilinganiselweyo lemingeni yokubumba abagwebi.

Ityala lilandela ulandelelwano olucwangcisiweyo: iingxelo zokuvula, ukunikelwa kobungqina ngabatshutshisi, ukunikelwa kobungqina ngokuzithethelela, iimpikiswano zokuqukumbela, imiyalelo yokuchophela ityala, kunye nokuququzelela. Ityala lithwala umthwalo wokubonakalisa ukuba unetyala ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni. Ummangalelwa unandipha ukubonakala engenatyala kwaye akanambopheleleko yokunikela ubungqina. Ukuba ummangalelwa ukhetha ukungqina, ukuxilonga okunqamlezayo kungakhawulezisa ukuthembeka kunye neengxelo eziphikisanayo zangaphambili.

Imithetho eManyeneyo yoBufakazi ilawula ukungqinelana kobungqina, amaxwebhu, kunye nobungqina obuphathekayo xa kuvavanywa. Isaci sokuva asikho ngqikeleli ngaphandle kokuba sibekwe ngaphakathi komahluko owaziwayo. Amangqina kufuneka anelise imilinganiselo yokuthembeka emiselwe Daubert v. Merrell Dorcealicatics. Ijaji isebenza njengomgcini-sango, ngaphandle kobungqina obungathembekangathembekanga, okanye obungaphezulu kokusetyenziswa kwe-probita.

Isigwebo noMgwebo

Abachopheli bejaji ngabom ngasese kwaye babuyisela isigqibo sokuba netyala okanye abanatyala. Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho angomazwana, isigwebo kufuneka sihlangane. Ukuba abachopheli-tyala abanakufikelela kwisigqibo sokungalawuleki, ijaji ithetha ityala eliphosakeleyo, kwaye ityala lingakhetha ukulilungisa kwakhona ityala. Isigqibo esingenatyala sikhulula ummangalelwa, kwaye i-Reopardy Claus ye-operal ibamba ityala kwakhona ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Isigqibo esinetyala sikhokelela ekugwetyweni, okuthi kwenzeke kwityala elahlukeneyo eliba lityala emva kweeveki eziliqela.

Kwiimeko zabemi, umgangatho wobungqina usezantsi. Abachazi-magama kufuneka bangqine imeko yabo ngobungqina obuqwalaselweyo, okuthetha ukuba kunokwenzeka kakhulu kunokuba oko kuthethwa ngumlawuli ochanekileyo kuyinyaniso. Iijaji zamakhaya akufuneki ukuba zingqinelane kwinkundla yephondo ngaphandle kokuba amaqela ayavuma okanye ityala libandakanya iintlobo ezithile zezinye. Isigqibo simisela iimfanelo zemali kwaye sinomvuzo, ukukhulula, okanye umgwebo wokukhupha ityala.

Ukugwetywa Nesohlwayo Kwinkundla Yomanyano

Imigaqo yeNkxaso yoLawulo loManyano

Isigwebo somanyano sisebenza phantsi kwe-United States Sentenfing Guidelines, enika isiseko sokumisa izivakalisi ezifanelekileyo. Imigaqo inika imigangatho esisiseko yetyala esekelwe kulwaphulo-mthetho kwaye ilungelelanisa oothunywashe. Umtshutshisi i’ udidi lwembali lolwaphulo-mthetho ludityaniswa nomgangatho wetyala lokuvelisa uluhlu olunconyelwayo lwesigwebo. Ngelixesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambeke ku- United States v. Incwadi yencwadi (2005) (ukuba izikhokelo zembali zezolwaphulo-mthetho zidityaniswe kuneso siseko, abagwebi kufuneka bacinge xa besenza isigwebo.

Ukuva ityala kuvumela omabini amaqela ukuba anikele iimpikiswano malunga nesohlwayo esifanelekileyo. Ijaji iqwalasela oothunywashe ababekwe kwi-18 U.S.C. ○ 3553 (a), abaquka uhlobo lwetyala, imbali yommangalelwa, imfuneko yokunqanda, imfuneko yoluntu, nemfuno yokunika isohlwayo esisesikweni. Amaxhoba angangqina ngeziphumo zexhoba. Ummangalelwa unelungelo lokuthetha ngetyala, uthetha kwinkundla ngqo phambi kokuba isigwebo sivakalisiwe.

Iintlobo zesigwebo somanyano

Iinkundla zomanyano zimisela uludwe lwezigwebo ezixhomekeke kulwaphulo-mthetho kunye neemeko zabamangalelwa. Ukumanyana kwintolongo yorhulumente sisigwebo esiqhelekileyo kwiifelosi ezinzulu. Iintolongo ezilungelelanisiweyo zisetyenziswa yi-Bureau of Prison kwaye zihlelwa ngokwemigangatho yokhuseleko esekelwe kwityala lemtshutshiso, ubude besigwebo, kunye nokuziphatha kombutho. iProject [ isenokubekwa kwizenzo ezinzima okanye ixesha lokuqala labagwebi, ezimalunga neemeko ezifana nokuxelwa rhoqo komphathi wetyala, uvavanyo lweziyobisi, kunye nemfuneko zengqesho.

Ii-FOLT ziyayalelwa rhoqo ecaleni kwentolongo okanye ukugcinwa. Umthetho ucela ummangalelwa ukuba ahlawule amaxhoba ngenxa yokulahlekelwa kwawo, ngelixa amafa esiwa kurhulumente. Umthetho womanyano uyagunyazisa ngenxa ye-fection yepropati esetyenzisiweyo okanye ekhutshwe kumsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukuphulukana nento kuye kwaba sisixhobo esibalulekileyo ekulweni nokurhoxisa iziyobisi, ukurhoxisa imali, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho olucwangcisiweyo, nangona luhlala lunempikiswano ngenxa yeziphumo zayo kwimpahla.

Izibheno

Urhulumente nommangalelwa bangafaka isindululo. Ummangalelwa angacela isigwebo esigqitha kumlinganiselo womthetho, iziphumo zokusetyenziswa okuphosakeleyo kwemigaqo, okanye angabi nangqiqo. Urhulumente angafaka isigwebo esingaphantsi koludwe lokhokelo ukuba asingqinelani okanye simiselwe ukwaphula umthetho. Iinkundla zesibheno zokubhenela phantsi komgangatho wokuxhatshazwa, ezinika ukuhlaziywa okuthe ngqo komgwebo wenkundla yesithili.

Izibheno noHlola loLungiso lwasemva

Inkqubo Eza Kufikelelwa Ngayo

Emva kokuba kungene umgwebo wokugqibela, iqela eliphulukana neso sibheno lingabhenela kwinkundla efanelekileyo yesibheno. Iifayile zesaziso sesibheno ze inikezele isikhalazo esifutshane esibhaliweyo sokuba inkundla egwebayo yenze impazamo engokwasemthethweni. Inkundla ephendula ngokukhusela umgwebo kafutshane. Inkundla yezibongozo ngoko iyasiva ingxoxo edluliselwa ngomlomo, ngexesha abagwebi bephendula amagqwetha ngemibandela engomthetho ephakanyisiweyo.

Iinkundla zetyala zihlola imibuzo ecacileyo. Le migaqo ingqinela ukuba abagwebi nabagwebi bakwizikhundla ezingcono ukuvavanya ukuthembeka nobunzima obuphikisanayo. Ukuba inkundla egwebayo ifumana impazamo ecacileyo, ingahlehlisa ityala, iwise ityala elitsha, okanye iphinde ifumane ityala elibhekele phambili elivisisanayo.

Iingxwabangxwaba zaseCertiorari kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo iqhelisela uhlolo olusemthethweni kwityala elivunyiweyo. Izikolo ezifuna uhlolo kufuneka zifake isicelo esibonisa ukuba eli tyala liphakamisa umbuzo onyanzelisayo ofanelwe yiNkundla i̱ inikela ingqalelo. INkundla inika imvume ye-certiori xa ubuncinane iijaji ezine zivota ukuze ziphulaphule eli tyala. Ukuba ityala liyakhanyelwa, isigqibo senkundla esezantsi simi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo i̱ izigqibo ezingo ngelungelo elimele limisele umzekelo osebenza ngokufanelekileyo omele ulandelwe ziqulu nkundla yesebe elisezantsi.

Impinda yeCalateal: Habeas Corpus

Amabanjwa asisigxina asenokuvavanya iinkolelo zawo okanye izigwebo eziphuma kwi-habeas corpus izibongozo phantsi 28 U.S. qha qha 76 225. Amabanjwa aseburhulumente avavanya iinkolelo zawo kwinkundla yephondo kufuneka aqhubeke phantsi U.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ukunyanzeliswa Kwabemi NgeeNkundla Zomanyano

Amalungelo abucala esenzo

Imimiselo emininzi karhulumente idala amalungelo azimeleyo esenzo avumela abantu kunye nemibutho ukuba basebenzise umthetho ngqo enkundleni yorhulumente. Imithetho yamalungelo abantu, imimiselo yemekobume, imimiselo yokuvalwa kwetyala, kunye nemithetho yokukhusela abathengi yonke ivumela ukumangalelwa kwabucala ukuba kupheliswe ukwaphula umthetho. Abamangalelwa basebucala bangafuna imimiselo yokuphelisa ukwaphula umthetho okuqhubekayo, umonakalo wokuhlawula umonakalo, kunye negqwetha i̱ iindleko zomthetho wokwandiswa komthetho karhulumente ngokunika izindululo kubantu ngabanye ukuba basebenze njengegqwetha jikelele.

Ukufumaneka kwegqwetha i’ imirhumo phantsi kwemimiselo enjenge 42 U.S.C. 88 kunye noMthetho we-Cease Air ukhuthaza amaqela azimeleyo ukuba azise amatyala anceda umdla kawonke-wonke. Ngaphandle kokutshintsha kwentlawulo, amatyala amaninzi aqhelekileyo akanakukwazi ukuhlawula amatyala antsonkothileyo karhulumente. Ithemba lokuhlawula amatyala akwanokuwasebenzisa amagqwetha amalungelo oluntu kunye neemeko zemeko-mentlalone ezinokuthi ngandlel

Ukuhlangulwa Okungenangozi Nemisebenzi

Iinkundla zomanyano zinegunya elibanzi elilinganayo lokukhupha imiyalo eyalela amaqela ukuba athathe okanye angayithabathi misebenzi ethile. imiyalelo yePreminaliariariarians [ igcina ubume bemeko ngexesha ityala lilindile, lo gama imiyalelo egqithisileyo [ inika isiqabu sokugqibela emva kokuvavanywa okufanelekileyo. Imiyalelo yemithetho iye yasetyenziswa ekulungiseni iinkqubo zentolongo, isithili, isithili, kunye nezibonelelo zempilo zengqondo ezifunyenwe zisophula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

Ukuqatshelwa kwentlawulo ye-injunctiff kufuna umchasi ukubonisa ingozi engalungisekiyo, amathuba empumelelo kwiimfanelo, ulungelelwano lobulungisa kwinkoliseko ye-paltiff, kwaye umyalelo unika umdla kawonke-wonke. Ezi zimfuno, ezisungulwe kwi Winter v. IBhunga lokhuselo lwezibonelelo zendalo [2008], ziqinisekisa ukuba imimiselo igcinelwe iimeko apho unyango olungokwasemthethweni lungangenelanga kwaye ingozi ingxamisekile.

Unyanzeliso lwe-arhente yomanyano

Amaqumrhu asebenza ngomanyano anjengeKhomishini yezentengiselwano ne-Exchange, i-Entevironmental Protection Agency, kunye neKhomishoni yeNkcubeko yezoKhuselo-ntle, kunye neKhomishoni yeSizwe yeSizwe izisa izenzo zokunyanzelisa kwinkundla yesithili okanye phambi kwabagwebi bomthetho. Iqumrhu lingafuna isohlwayo sabemi, ukukhutshwa kwengeniso, imiyalelo, nezinye iingxelo. Kwezinye iimeko, amaqumrhu anegunya lokumisela isigwebo ngezomthetho ngaphandle kokuya kwinkundla yokuqala, kunye nohlolo olukhoyo emva kwemibangozo

IDodd-Frank Wall Street Reformation kunye noMthetho weNkxaso kunye neminye imithetho yale mihla yowiso-mthetho ikhulise amagunya olungiselelo okuqinisekisa ukuba kukho umthetho wolawulo loluntu ngeli xesha kusenziwa iinkqubo zokufutha iimpempendulu ezibangela ukuba abantu bavakalise ukwaphula umthetho. Ukunyanzeliswa kwe-arhente esebenza ecaleni kolwaphulo-mthetho oluziswa ngu-Attorney ̱ ii-ofisi, zidala isiseko somthetho esibanzi esithetha ngokuziphatha okubi kwabephuli-mthetho nokungadibanisi.

Imingeni yomGaqo-siseko noHlaziyo lwezeNkcukacha

Ukuma Nokusesikweni

Iinkundla zomanyano ziza kuva kuphela amatyala abangela iimpikiswano zokwenene phakathi kwamaqela achaseneyo. Imfundiso ye ifuna ukuba ii-partiff zibonise umonakalo ocacileyo kwinyani leyo ikonkrithi, ekhethekileyo, neyokwenyani okanye ekufuphi; unxulumano oluphakathi kokwenzakala nommangalelwa i’ ihambo; kwaye kunokwenzeka ukuba isigqibo esilungileyo senkundla siyayibuyisela inxeba. Ezi mfuneko zithintela iinkundla ukuba zingakhuphisi izimvo zobuxoki kwaye ziqinisekise ukuba amatyala abekwe ngamaqela afakelwe kwisiphumo sobuqu.

Iimfundiso ezongezelelweyo zokulunga ziquka ukukhawuleza , ezithintela ukuphinda kuphinde kuthethwa ngaphambi kwexesha, kunye ukuvota , ezo zithintela ukuhlola xa impikiswano ingasabakho. Iinkundla zoManyano ziyakuphepha ukuva amatyala athile ngenxa yokuhlonelwa kwenkundla yenkundla yezomthetho okanye ukuphepha ukugqiba imibuzo esemthethweni ngokungeyo. Ezi mfundiso zibonakalisa indima elinganiselweyo yeenkundla zesizwe kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko egcina imisebenzi yenkoliso yezoburhulumente yezopolitiko namazwe.

Ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko

Xa iinkundla zikarhulumente zitolika umGaqo-siseko, zisebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika intsingiselo yamalungiselelo awo. Inkcazo igxininisa kwintsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo womGaqo-siseko ngexesha lokumiselwa. Ukwenziwa komGaqo-siseko kufuna ukuqinisekisa intsingiselo yantlandlolo yamalungiselelo. Umthetho-siseko wobomi ujonga umGaqo-siseko njengolungele ukuhlangabezana neemeko ezitshintshayo. Indlela esetyenziswa ngumgwebi inokuba negalelo eliphawulekayo kwiziphumo zeengxaki zomgaqo-siseko.

Iinkundla zomanyano ziye zasebenzisa uhlolo lokugweba ukubetha imithetho echasene namalungelo asisiseko, egqitha igunya lombutho, okanye ukugxambukela kulawulo lwesizwe. Imizekelo engacacanga iquka Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], ethintele ukucalula ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, kunye . Hodges[FLT] (2015], eyamkela ilungelo elingumGaqo-siseko lokutshata okudelela ukuqhuba umtshato omnye. Ezi zigqibo zibonisa amandla eencwadi yezomthetho karhulumente ukunyanzelisa imimiselo yomthetho-siseko oqhelekileyo nxamnye neemeko-omkhulu.

Indima Ekhulayo Yeenkundla Zomanyano Kumthetho Wanamhlanje

Uqikelelo oluntsonkothileyo kunye nentsebenziswano yemimandla emininzi

Iinkundla zomanyano zilawula amatyala antsonkothileyo abandakanya amaqela amaninzi, ukufunyanwa okunzulu, kunye nobungqina bobugcisa. I-Multdigolity ligitation (MDL) ivumela ukuba irekhodi okanye amakhulu eetyala elinxulumene nayo aqiniswe phambi kojaji omnye ukwenzela iziphumo zomthetho. I-MDL idla ngokusetyenziswa kwityala lemveliso, ukuqhatha kwetyala, ukuchasana kwetyala, ukuchasana nobuninzi bamatyala. Iqela le-Gawulayo kwi-Elidiferentiumty Litiggation liqinisekisa ukuba ukudicanyaza kulungile na kwaye likhetha inkundla edluliselwa kwenye indawo.

Izenzo zodidi, ezilawulwa ngumthetho wobuNtloko wePhondo waBami , zivumela abameli abachaphazelekayo ukuba badlulisele ityala ngenxa yamaqela amakhulu abantu ababekwe ngokufanayo. Izenzo zodidi zinikezela kubulungisa kwiimeko apho imicimbi nganye incinane kakhulu ukuba ivume ukumangalelwa. Iinkundla zomanyano zihlolisisa ngenyameko isiqinisekiso sodidi, ukuhlawuliswa, kunye nokunconywa kwe-agnobhuza ukukhusela amalungu odidi angekhoyo kwaye zithintele ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwesixhobo.

Ubuxhakaxhaka nobungqina kwiNkundla yoManyano

Inkqubela-phambili kwezobugcisa iye yaguqula indlela obuqokelelwa ngayo ubungqina, obuye banikelwa, kwaye bacelwwa kwinkundla yesizwe. Ukufunyanwa kwe-electronic, okanye i-evolution, kufuna amaqela ukuze enze ii-imeyili, imiyalezo yokubhaliweyo, ii-ofisi zezentlalo-ntle, kunye nezinye iindlela zonxibelelwano lwamanani. Imithetho yePhondo yoLuntu loLuntu ithetha ngokulondolozwa nokuveliswa kolwazi olugcinwe nge-electronet-gective kunye nokunikezelwa kwezigwebo xa amaqela engaphumeleli ukuhlangabezana neemfuno zawo zokufunyanwa.

Ubungqina bamanani bunyusa imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni phantsi koMphetho-mda wesine. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kwi- Cartent v. eUnited States (2088) yakholelwa ukuba urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ulwazi lwendawo ekuyo iiseli. Esi sigqibo saqonda ukuba uphando lweziko lwezimvo lungatyhila iinkcukacha ezinzulu ngomntu i̱ ubomi bobuqu kwaye lusebenzisa ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko kwizobugcisa obutsha. Iinkundla zomanyano ziyaqhubeka zidityaniswa neembambano ezinxulumene nokuvulwa kwenkcazelo yembali yeseli, kunye nokungaboni bungqina bamanani.

Unyanzelo lwamazwe ngamazwe nolungelelwano olunqamlezileyo

Iinkundla zomanyano ezimayela namatyala alingana nezizwe ngezizwe. Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho asenokubandakanya ubungqina obubekwe kwelinye ilizwe, abamangalelwa bangaphandle, okanye ukwaphulwa komthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Amatyala amakhaya angabandakanya ukuthengiselana imida enqamlezileyo, ukukhusela ulawulo lwamanye amazwe, okanye ukunyanzeliswa kwemigwebo yamanye amazwe. Iinkundla zomanyano zisebenzisa [ uMthetho woLawulo lwe-Immunions ukugqiba xa oorhulumente bamanye amazwe benokumangalelwa kunye uMthetho weSivumelo soburhulumente [FLT]] ukuphepha ukuthembeka kwezenzo zoorhulumente bangaphandle.

Izivumelwano zoncedo olusemthethweni kunye nezivumelwano zokongezelelwa komthetho zivumela intsebenziswano phakathi kwe-United States namanye amazwe kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho. Iinkundla zoManyano zihlola izicelo zolwamkelo ezongezelelweyo zize zigqibe enoba ziyayiphumeza kusini na imfuno yesivumelwano. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, iinkundla zephondo zisenokukhupha iileta zokucela uncedo kwiinkundla zamanye amazwe ekufumaneni ubungqina. Ijaji yesizwe i̱ amandla okusingatha amatyala amazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe zikhuthaza ukufikelela kwehlabathi lonke komthetho waseMerika.

Iingxaki Ezijamelene Neenkundla Zomanyano Ekwandiswani Komthetho

Iingcinezelo Zomthwalo Nemiqobo Yezibonelelo

Iinkundla zomanyano zisingatha ubuninzi obukhulu bamatyala nyaka ngamnye, namatyala angaphezu kwama-40 000 agcinwe minyaka le kuzo zonke iinkundla zesithili. Inani labagwebi besithili alikhange liqhubeke lihamba nesantya sokukhula kwezixhobo, nto leyo ekhokelela ekuthwaleni kwetyala elinzima namaxesha amade okulungisa amatyala. Abagwebi abaphezulu, abagwebi abagwebi abaphezulu, nabagwebi abarhwebi abahlawulwayo bancedayo ekulawuleni umsebenzi, kodwa abahlali bexhalabele inkxalabo kwimimandla emininzi. Ingqungquthela yeJaji yesizwe yaseUnited States icela iijaji ezongezo zokwandisa iingcinezelo.

Izithintelo zemithombo yemali zikwachaphazela ubunjani bomelo kwinkundla yelifa lesizwe. Inkqubo yoKhuselo loLuntu noMthetho weSigwebo soMphathiswa weSigwebo soMbindi-mthetho unika isiluleko kubamangalelwa abakhonzi abakhohlakeleyo, kodwa amanqanaba abasebenzi kunye nenkxaso-mali zisoloko zingafumani mfuneko. Ubuncwane obungenakwanelayo bungakhokelela ekuphandeni ngokungxama, ukufikelela okulinganiselweyo kumangqina angonolwazi, nokungagqibeleli kakuhle ekuchongeni nasekugwebeni. Ukuqinisekisa okokuba iinkundla zesizwe zinobuncwane obaneleyo bokulawula ngokunempumelelo kukungaqhubeki komthetho kulucelomngeni oluqhubekayo.

Ukwahluka Nokuxhalaba Ngokusesikweni

Utshintsho olulungiselelwe umanyano kwiminyaka engamashumi amane edluleyo luye lwanciphisa ubuchule bokugweba kwaye lwafak' isandla kwizahluko eziphawulekayo. I-Sentensigning Guidelines, eyayenzelwe ukuphelisa ukungacaluli okungeyomfuneko, iye yagxekwa ngokuvelisa izivakalisi ezingqongqo kakhulu kunye neziphumo ezizozo zokwahlula abamangalelwa abambalwa. I-Gaqo-mthetho yokuqala ka-2018 yabonisa umgudu wokunciphisa izigwebo zemiqathango zeziyobisi ezithile ezingezobundlobongela.

Ukwahluka kobuhlanga nobuhlanga kwisigwebo somthetho wamaqumrhu asekuhlaleni kuhlala kuyinto exhalabisayo. Uhlolisiso lubonisa ukuba abamangalelwa abaNsundu nabaNsundu basengozini yokuvalelwa ngaphambi kokuba kuquluthwe ityala, mancinane amathuba okufumana isibongozo esilungileyo kwiinjongo zabo, kwaye basenokufumana izigwebo ezingaphezulu kunabamangalelwa abamhlophe abamangalelwa ngetyala elifanayo. Iinkundla zoManyano kunye neSebe leMithetho-siseko baye baqalisa iinkqubo zoqeqesho kunye neenguqulo zenkqubo ukuphendula imbono ecacileyo kunye nokukhuthaza ukugqwetha okusesikweni.

Ukuthenjwa Nomthetho

Ukufaneleka kweenkundla zikarhulumente kuxhomekeke ekuthembeni kukawonke-wonke ekubonakaliseni ingqiqo nasekungakhethini kwazo. Ukubekwa kwemiqathango ephezulu kwemiqathango yokugweba kunye nolwahlulo olukhulayo lwentanda-bulumko egwebayo kuye kwaphakamisa inkxalabo ngokukhukuliseka kwentembelo kawonke-wonke. Abagwebi bamaPhondo bamiselwe ubomi ukuze babakhusele kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, kodwa inkqubo yokutyunjwa ngokwayo iye yaba yiprojekthi ephezulu kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje.

Ukurhoxisa ulwazi kubonisa ukuba ukuvunywa kukawonke-wonke kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuye kwancipha kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ngemilinganiselo evunyiweyo ehla ngezantsi ngaphantsi kwama-50% amaxesha ande. Iinkundla zorhulumente ezisezantsi zisoloko zinandipha iqondo eliphezulu lokuthenjwa kwabantu, kodwa iimbono zocalucalulo lwezobupolitika zingachaphazela indlela izigwebo zenkundla ezimkelwe ngayo nguluntu. Ijaji yesizwe iye yasabela ngokubonisa ngakumbi, iphucula iinkqubo zemfundo yezemfundo, kwaye iphumeza imigaqo yokusebenzisa imigaqo ukugcina ingqibelelo yenkqubo yokugweba.

Ikamva Lokunyanzeliswa Komthetho Ngeenkundla Zomanyano

Ukugcinwa komthetho kwiinkundla zikarhulumente kuza kuqhubeka kuguquka ukuphendula imingeni emitsha yomthetho, iinguqu zobugcisa, kunye nolindelo loluntu. Iinkundla zoManyano zibonakala zibona amatyala angakumbi abandakanya ukungakhuseleki kwekhompyutha, ubuchule obungeyomvelo, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye neendawo zogcino-lwazi. Ezi ndawo zilandelayo ziya kufuna ukuba abagwebi abakhoyo basebenzise imigaqo esemthethweni kwiimeko ezintsha zenyaniso, kwaye kwezinye iimeko, ukutolika amaqhinga amatsha omthetho asungulwe yiBhunga.

Ulwalamano phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente norhulumente ekunyanzelweni komthetho luza kuhlala lunamandla. Imigaqo yomanyano iyafuna ukuhlonelwa kolongamo lukarhulumente ngeli lixa ukulondoloza ukuphakama komthetho karhulumente kwiindawo apho iBhunga eliPhezulu liye lasebenza khona. INkundla ePhakamileyo i̱ i-consticalism jurisprudence inamandla alinganiselweyo equlungwini phantsi koMlawuli wezorhwebo kunye noMphembelelo we-14, okungachaphazela umgangatho wegunya lolawulo lorhulumente. Indlela ezi mfundiso eziya kubumbanisa ngayo ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente nezorhulumente kwiminyaka ezayo.

Ukuhlanganiswa kobugcisa kwimisebenzi yenkundla, okukhawulezwe yi-COVID-19, kuvule amathuba amatsha okuphucula ukufikelela kobulungisa. Ukuva okukude, i-electronic shell, kunye nokunika ividiyo ziimpawu ezisezantsi zoqheliselo lwenkundla yesebe. Ezi zintsha zinganciphisa iindleko, zicoce isantya sokulungisa iityala, kunye nokwandisa ukufikelela komelo olusemthethweni. Kwangaxeshanye, ziphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokhuseleko lwenkundla, ukuthembeka, kunye nokulondolozwa kobulungisa bemeko-bume bekhompyutha yamanani.

Ukusebenza komthetho onyanzelekileyo kwiinkundla zelifa lemveli ekugqibeleni kuxhomekeke kumgangatho wabagwebi, amagqwetha, nabasebenzi benkundla abalawula le nkqubo. Ukuqhubeka notyalo-mali kwimfundo egweba, uqeqesho olungokwasemthethweni, kunye nobugcisa benkundla kubalulekile ukugcina isebe lejaji lesizwe likwazi ukumisa umthetho ngokufanelekileyo nangempumelelo. Isiseko somgaqo-siseko esimiselwe ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo siye sangqineka singqinelana ngokuphawulekayo nokuguquka kweemeko, yaye iinkundla zephondo zisenokuhlala zisemgangathweni kumthetho wesizwe wezizukulwana ezizayo.