Ukwazisa: ICernerstone yeDemocracy yoMgaqo-siseko

Uhlolo lwezeejaji lungamandla eenkundla okuhlola izenzo zamasebe owiso-mthetho kunye nezolawulo oluphezulu aze azenze zibe buthathaka ezo zingqubana nomgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya, nangona lingachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumaxwebhu amaninzi okuseka, liye laba luphawu olungundoqo lolawulo lwale mihla lomgaqo-siseko. Ngokunika amandla owiso-mthetho ozimeleyo ukunyanzelisa imida emiselwe ngomgaqo-siseko, ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uya kuphendula, kwaye lilondoloza ukwahlulwa kwamagunya. Ukusuka ekuqalisweni kwalo kwasekuqaleni eUnited States ukuya ekulawulweni kwalo kwimiyalelo yesiseko somgaqo-siseko ehlabathini lonke, ukuhlola okuzigweba kuhlala kuyinto enamandla kwaye kusoloko kuxhatshazwa kwisixhobo solawulo-demo-demokhrasi.

Le mfundiso isekelwe kwingqiqo esisiseko: umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo ngumthetho ophakamileyo, kwaye yindima yejaji ukutolika loo mthetho xa kuvela iimpikiswano. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo yokunyanzelisa ukuba umgaqo-siseko unegunya, umgaqo-siseko unokuba yingozi ekubeni yinjongo nje emiselwe umnqweno. Uhlalutyo lwezomthetho luguqula izithembiso zomgaqo-siseko zibe ngamalungelo anyanzelekileyo. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iimvelaphi zembali zohlalutyo, imisebenzi yalo ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo nokulungelelanisa amandla, imiba yembali eye yaguqula ukusetyenziswa kwawo, kunye nokugxekwa okuqhubeka kudala impikiswano phakathi kwabaphengululi nabenzi bonyango.

Imvelaphi Nenkqubela Yembali

Isiseko Somthetho WesiNgesi

Ingcamango yokuba iinkundla zingahlola umthetho wokuthobela umthetho ophezulu ngaphambi kokusekwa kweMelika. ENgilani, uluvo lukaMhlekazi Edward Coke ku Dr. UCwangciso lukaBonham [ [1610] lucebisa ukuba “xa isenzo sePalamente sichasene nelungelo elinye nengqiqo, okanye icekisekayo, okanye engenakwenzeka, umthetho oqhelekileyo uya kuyilawula." Nangona lo mgaqo ungathathanga ingcambumbu kulawulo loBukumkani bolawulo lwepalamente, waphembele abasebenzi bekolone abathe kamva benza inkqubo ebhaliweyo, umthetho ophakamileyo.

Ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo, iingcungela zomthetho zaseBritani njengoWilliam Blackstone zavuma ukuba amandla owiso-mthetho, ngoxa enegunya, anokulinganiselwa ngumthetho wendalo. Kodwa amaguquka aseMerika adlulela phambili: adala uxwebhu olubopha bonke abadlali bakarhulumente yaye lunokunyanzelwa ziinkundla ezizimeleyo.

Marbury v. Madison: Ibreakthrough yaseMerika

Ityala eliphawulayo le uMarbury v. Madison (1803) linconywa emhlabeni wonke ngokumisela uhlolo lwezomthetho eUnited States. Ukubhalela iNkundla ePhakamileyo, iJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yavakalisa ukuba “kugxininisa iphondo kunye nomsebenzi wesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho.” Marshall waqiqa ngelokuba umGaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, nokuba nawuphi na umthetho ocekisayo kulo umele ukuba ungabikho. Nangona uMgaqo-siseko ungawaniki ngokucacileyo amandla eNkuhlola inkundla, Marshall waphikisa ukuba wona kanye umgaqo obhaliweyo ugunya elinjalo.

Impikiswano ekhawulezileyo ````Enay William Marbury' wayenelungelo lokuya kumsebenzi wakhe njengobulungisa boxolo' yaconjululwa ngendlela ephephe ungquzulwano noMongameli Thomas Jefferson. Ngokufumana ukuba umthetho onika iNkundla igunya lokuqala phezu kwemiqathango yemandamus waphula iGatya III, Marshall wasungula uhlolo lwezomthetho wabonisa uphando lwetyala ngexesha elinye. Wafunda lonke icala ku-Oyez[[FLT].]

Ukusasazeka Kohlolo Logwebo

Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, amazwe amaninzi amkela iinkundla zomGaqo-siseko okanye agunyazisa iinkundla eziphakamileyo ezikhoyo ngokuhlola ngegunya. Inkundla yeQumrhu loMgaqo-siseko yaseJamani, eyasekwa ngowe-1951, yaba ngumzekelo wokuhlola okuphambili kwezomthetho. ISicatshulwa seKhanada samaLungelo neFreedoms (19982) sanika iinkundla amandla aqinile okuhlola, nangona “imithetho engekho mthethweni” ivumela iwisomthetho othile. Kwanalo rhulumente waseUnited Kingdom, owexesha elide omelana nokuncitshiswa kwemithetho esisiseko, uye wabona iinkundla ngokuthe ngcelele amandla okuphelisa imithetho engqubanayo nomthetho we-Europe Union okanye i-Rhulumend Act yowe-1998.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Amalungelo Abemi Nomgangatho Wobuhlanga

Uhlolo lwezomthetho luye lwaba yi-injini yokuqala yokuqhubela phambili amalungelo asekuhlaleni e-United States. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) yaphelisa ucalucalulo lwesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, ibhukuqa i-“endidi kodwa ilingana” imfundiso ye engenanto. Ferguson. Intloko yeJaji Earl Warrenrenth yabhala ukuba amaziko eqeshishiweyo“ ayilingani,” kwaye isigqibo seNkungangqinelani sisetyenziswe kwimithetho ethobayo ethobayo. [FLT:] Brown.

Ngokufanayo, u-Uhlanga olusukayo v. Virginia (1967) wasebenzisa uhlolo lokugweba ukubetha imithetho yephondo elwa nombuso, evakalisa ukuba “inkululeko yokutshata, okanye ukungatshati, umntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomntu ngamnye kwaye akanako ukuphazanyiswa nguRhulumente.” La matyala abonakalisa indima yenkundla njengomkhuseli wamaqela acutheneyo kwingcinezelo enkulu.

Intetho Yakukhululeka Nentetho

Kwakhona uhlolo lwezomthetho lukhusela intengiso yeengcamango. Kutshanje, iNew York Times Co. v. Sullivan [1964], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi uGawulayo wokuqala ukhusela iingxelo zobuxoki ngamagosa kawonke wonke ngaphandle kokuba yenziwe “ngokurhwala,” imisela isibambi esiphezulu sokuhlazisa iisuti. Kutshanje, [[FLT:]] kuxhaswe [[FLT] .FEC[FT:3] [2010], iNkuwiswa kwemiqathango yeBpartisant Reformation Revolution evala inkcation esemthethweni ethintela inkcitho yezo yezopoliti yezopolitiko. Ukuqiqayo okuthiweyo koluvo oluphikisa ububanzi bomgano lwezisoluko-gqesho.

Imfihlo Ne-autonomy Esetyenziswa Ngasese

Ilungelo lokuzimela, nangona lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, ligcinwe ngokucaciswa kwezomthetho. Griswold v.Connecticut (65) yabetha umthetho ovala ukuthintela ukuthintela ukukhawula, ifumana “penumbra” yamalungelo obuqu kuBill of Rights. [FLT:] [2] Roe v. [[FLT]][FLT]] [[FLT]] [7773]]) Yandisa loo ngcamango yokususa isisu, iqaphela umdla womfazi phantsi kweMboniso kaClaus Claus. [[FLT] [12] RG] [5] iqhubekela imigaqo esemthethweni phantsi kwemigaqo egwetyelweyo esemthethweni ekwayamkelekileyo, i-mthetho esetyenziswa phantsi kwemigaqo yokugweba.[FLT][FLD][6]

Ukulungelelanisa Amandla Karhulumente

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

Uhlolo lwejaji luluhlo olubalulekileyo kwamanye amasebe. Kwiqela elincinane Ikhasi le Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yachitha uMongameli Truman amandla okulawula ekubambeni izigalo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea. Inkundla yabambelela ekubeni uMongameli wayengenagunya lemithetho-siseko ukwenza isenzo esinjalo ngaphandle kogunyaziso lombutho. UJack Jackson’s Conclictrence, uProgiclate diging sisakhelo sesakhelo se-mente ejongela amandla olawulo oluphezulu, uhlala elona cebo linempembelelo kulwahlulo lwamandla.

Kutshanje, S v. Chadha [19983] wabetha phantsi iveto yemithetho, isixhobo seKhomishini esisetyenziselwa ukubhukuqa izigqibo zolawulo ngaphandle kokudlulisa umthetho. INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba iveto iphule iPreastiment Clause, efuna i- bidaralism kunye nenkcazelo kuMongameli nangayiphi na inyathelo lomthetho. Ezi meko zibonisa ukuhlola kwetyala elinye lithintela ukungenelela kumandla omnye.

Umanyano kunye neGunya leLizwe

Kwakhona ingxubusho yezeejaji ichaza ulungelelwano phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente. United States v. Lopez (1995], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukuphatha umpu kwindawo yesikolo akuchaphazelekanga kakhulu kwezorhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe, ukumisela amandla orhwebo eBhunga. Oku kwaphawula okwesihlandlo sokuqala kwiminyaka emalunga namashumi amathandathu ukuba iNkuNkundla ibethelele umthetho kazwelonke wegunya lezorhwebo elingaphezulu, ibonakalisa ukuzinikela okutsha kwegunya lolawulo loburhulumente.

Ngokuchaseneyo, [[Nkqutyana:0] Arizona v. United States (202) yawanciphisa amalungiselelo angundoqo omthetho wesizwe wokufuduka, iqiqa ukuba ukugcinwa kwabantu abafudukayo kukhutshwa ngumthetho wesizwe. Ngezi zigqibo, uhlolo lwezomthetho lugcina ukwakhiwa komgaqo-siseko wolawulo olubini.

Imbono ethelekisayo kwiNjongo yezeeJaji

Imodeli YaseMerika: Impinda Yoqilima Enamandla Yoqikelelo

I-United States isebenzisa imodeli elungelelanisiweyo, enamandla: nayiphi na inkundla ingavakalisa umthetho ongekho mgaqweni, kwaye ukucaciswa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuyabophelela kuwo onke amasebe. Akukho mthetho ugqithileyo ekupheliseni ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko, okunzima ngabom. Le mizekelo inika iinkundla amandla amakhulu okulungisa inkqubo, iphakamisa inkxalabo ngobunzima bokulwa kwetyala.

Imodeli yaseBritani: Ulawulo lwePalamente

KuManyano eUnited Kingdom, iinkundla azinakuwisa iZenzo zePalamente kuba iPalamente iyinkosi. Noko ke, uMthetho wamaLungelo oluntu ka-1998 uvumela iinkundla ukuba zinikezele “isindululo sokungangqinelani,” zichaza ukuba umthetho uyawuphula umthetho weNkomfa yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu. IPalamente igcina intetho yokugqibela, ngokuqhelekileyo imela umthetho owephula umthetho owephula umthetho. Le mizamo ibuthathaka ye-86 izama ukuxolela ukukhusela amalungelo kunye nokuphendula kwidemokhrasi. [FLT: 0] Ukufunda uMthetho wamalungelo abantu

Imodeli YaseKhanada: ICengce yoMgaqo - mkhosi Wezokhuseleko

UMgaqo-siseko waseKhanada, 1982, kuquka iTshata yamaLungelo neNkululeko, inika amagunya anamandla okuzihlola. Noko ke, iCandelo 33(*) “izindlu zowiso-mthetho ezizimeleyo” (*) eziye zawasebenzisa ngokukhuselekileyo amalungelo athile eTshado-mgaqo-mvume kangangeminyaka emihlanu. Eli gunya liye lasetyenziswa ngokucokisekileyo, ngokukodwa yiQuebec ngomthetho wolwimi. Imodeli yaseKhanada izama ukulinganisa igunya lezahlulelo kunye negunya lemithetho yemithetho.

IiNkundla zomGaqo-siseko zaseYurophu

Amazwe amaninzi aseYurophu aneenkundla ezikhethekileyo zomGaqo-siseko eziqhuba uhlolo olungenantsingiselo (imithetho elawulayo ngaphambi kokuba isebenze) kunye nokuhlola okucacileyo (ukuva izikhalazo kubantu ngabanye). Ngokomzekelo, iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yaseJamani, iye yachitha imithetho engokwasese, yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, kunye neyogcino-lwazi, iguqula umgaqo-siseko welizwe osemthethweni. INkundla yeJaji yeEuropean Union neNkundla yaseYurophu Yamalungelo abantu inikela uhlolo-wezwe lonke, idala inkqubo eninzi yokukhuselwa kwamalungelo.

Amatyala Achaza Impinda Yejaji

Ukwandisa Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

  • Mapp v.O. (1961): Wasebenzisa umthetho owenziwe ngumthetho oweqayo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, wavala ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuphengulula okungekho ngqiqweni kunye nokuxhuzula.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Amapolisa afunekayo ukuxelela abakrokrele bamalungelo abo ukuba bawathi cwaka kwaye bacebise phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umtshato owiswe ngokusemthethweni ofanayo nongokwabelana ngesondo kwilizwe lonke, ubambe ukuba uLawulo lweshumi elinesine luqinisekisa ilungelo lokutshata nokuba kusini okanye kusini na.
  • Lawrence v. Texas (2003): Ukurhoxa phantsi kwemithetho yesodoma, ukwamkela umdla wenkululeko kulwalamano olusondeleyo lobuqu.

Ukukhangela ngokugqithisileyo uhlaselo lukarhulumente

  • United States v. Nixon (1974): Isaziso sikaMongameli uNixon sokufumana ilungelo elipheleleyo lokulawula, umnyanzelisa ukuba ajike phezu kweteyipu yeWatergate.
  • Clinton v. IsiXeko saseNew York (1998): saphelelwa nguMgaqo woMgca we-Into Veto, owanika uMongameli amandla okurhoxisa izinto ezithile ezichithekileyo ngaphandle kogunyaziso lwengqungquthela.
  • Indawe yoKhuseleko lwasekhaya lwe Homeland v. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya [2020]): Yavala ukuzama komphathi weTrump ukuphinda afumane ukuqiqa okuzenzekelayo nokungaqondakaliyo.

Ukugxekwa Nocelomngeni

Ubunzima Besilwanyana

Eyona nto ithe gqolo igxekwayo kuhlolo logwebo olunetyala kukuchasana kwayo nedemokhrasi. Xa abagwebi abanganyulwanga imithetho yokubhukuqa edluliswa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezinyuliweyo, bathabathela indawo iinketho zabo zenkqubo zabo kwizo zabantu. UAlexander Bickel ngokudume ngokubizwa ngokuba “bubunzima bobuzwe.” Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi uhlolo lwezomthetho lukhusela amahlelo amancinane kunye namalungelo asisiseko anokuthi amaziko angazihoyi, kwaye umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo uluxwebhu lwedemokhrasi olumisela imicimbi eqhelekileyo yezobupolitika.

Ukungaququzeli kwemithetho yezomthetho

Abahlalutyi basoloko betyhola iinkundla “zomthetho womthetho-mthetho” xa bebetha imithetho, ngoxa bedumisa“ ukunqanda umthetho” xa bebhekisa kwizindlu zowiso-mthetho. Noko ke, ezi nkcazelo zithwele ngokweengcamango. Umzekelo, ababhiyozela ngokwesithethe ababhiyozela i-United [iii-Cuniga] (ukugawula imithetho yezemali) kungachaphazeleka intsingiselo yokuqala yombhalo okanye ukusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko ophilayo.

Idinga elikwimeko entle

Kumazwe amaninzi, inkqubo yokukhetha abagwebi iye yaba yeyezobupolitika kakhulu. Iingxelo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ngoku ziliwa ngokuchasene neemfazwe, yaye abalawuli basoloko bechatshazelwa ngenxa yengcamango yabo kwimibandela eshushu ye-toxist. Oku kunokuphelisa intembelo yoluntu ekungakhethi buso kwejaji. Abanye abaphengululi bacebisa ukuba kubekho utshintsho olufana nemiqathango emiselwe abagwebi okanye ixesha lokuthatha umhlala-phantsi kwemiqathango ukuze banciphise ukutyunjwa.

Ukupheliswa kwenkundla kunye nezisongelo zeziko

Imigudu yomthetho yokwandisa okanye ukuphinda ulungise ijudiary . idla ngokubizwa ngokuba “yinkundla enika imvume”""" ibeka isisongelo esingqalileyo kwinkululeko yokugweba. Ngo-1937, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt wacebisa ukuba afake amatyala amatsha amathandathu kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo emva kokuba ibethelele iinkqubo zakhe ezitsha ze-New Deance. Icebo aliphumelelanga, kodwa isiganeko sibonisa indlela amasebe ezobupolitika anokuzama ngayo ukuphelisa ulawulo olungenabumoya. Izicelo ezifanayo ziphinde zabuyiselwa kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ziphakamisa imibuzo malunga nozinzo olude lwe-2006.

Ikamva Lempinda Yogwebo

Iimfundiso Eziguqukayo

Njengoko ibutho labantu litshintsha, iimfundiso zogwebo zitshintsha. Ukuguqukela kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. kuguqukele kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunqulo lwangaphambili nakumbhalo wezombhalo, okukhokelwa nguJaji Antonin Scalia kwaye kuqhubekeka ngabaninzi ababambelele kwizithethe eziqhelekileyo, kungasinciphisa isigxina sokhuseleko lwamalungelo. Kwangaxeshanye, iinkundla ezisezantsi neenkundla eziphakamileyo zikarhulumente ziya zichaza ngokukhula ngakumbi ukukhusela urhulumente ukudlula umGaqo-siseko wesizwe."

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

Ubugcisa bamanani bunika imingeni yenoveli yohlolo logwebo. IiNkundla kufuneka zigqibe indlela uHlaziyo lweSine olusebenza ngayo kugcino-lwazi lwendawo yeseli {foni, nokuba imigaqo-mithetho esetyenziswa ekugwetyweni kwezaphuli-mthetho iyayichasa inkqubela-mthetho, nendlela imigaqo yenkululeko yokuthetha egqithise ngayo kumaqonga onxibelelwano. I-Carpent v. United States [2017] [2018], iNkuMkhosi ePhakamileyo ibambelele ukuba urhulumente ufune isiqinisekiso sokufikelela kwiingxelo zembali zembali, ukuqonda ukuba ubugcisa emitsha inokuphelisa iimfuno zezo zinto.

Utyekelo Lwehlabathi Lonke

Ingqwalasela yezomthetho iyaqhubeka isasazeka emhlabeni wonke, kodwa ikwakwakho neengxaki ezingalindelekanga. Kumazwe anjenge-Hungary, iPoland, neTurkey, oorhulumente baye benza buthathaka iinkundla zomGaqo-siseko ngokulawula umthetho, ngokugweba, nangokukhutshwa kweejaji ezizimeleyo. Ukurhoxa kozimeleyo kwemithetho-siseko entsha kugxininisa ukungalawuleki komgaqo-siseko. Ngokuchasene noko, iNkundla yamaMelika yamalungelo abantu kunye neNkundla yama-Afrika eLungelo loluntu inyusa igunya labo lokuhlola, inika ithemba lokukhuselwa kwamalungelo kwimimandla enamaziko abuthathaka.

Isiphelo

Ukuhlola okusemthethweni kuhlala kuyinto ebalulekileyo kodwa kudibene nenkundla. Ngokunika amandla okuphelisa imithetho yezoburhulumente kunye nezenzo zolawulo, kukhusela amalungelo asisiseko kwaye kugcine ulungelelwano lomgaqo-siseko. Iimeko zokuphawula ukuvela [[FLT: 0] kumatyala] ama-moricury[ ukuya ku-[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] [iiii-OGeneko] [iiiiiiiiivithi] [iiindawo enzima] [[iiiiiindawo] enzima yokuguqula, ngelixa i-Grabhay', ngexesha elingapheliyo, elithe , eliselukileyo libonisa ukugxekwa kwayo, elizinziswe kumthetho womthetho we-Genegadia, nelo-omatika kawonke-omatika.