Ukwazisa: Isizathu Sokuba Urhulumente Amisele Utshintsho Lwezoqoqosho

Utshintsho lwezoqoqosho kunye nokubekwa kwezakhiwo akwenzeki kwizinto ezingenanto. Luyilwa, lukhawuleze, okanye luthintelwe yinkqubo yezopolitiko esetyenziswa ngabenzi bezopolitiko. Uyilo lukarhulumente — enoba ugxininisa okanye uyawuchitha, enoba abalawuli bajongene nemithetho ebuthathaka okanye ii-checks ezinamandla, enoba amaqela ohlwaywa okanye ahluliwe — adala iseti yeempembelelo ezinamandla neentsika ezigqiba ngokukhawuleza nangokucokisekileyo ukuba ilizwe lingawulungisa ngokutsha uqoqosho lwalo lwalo. Ukuqonda la mandla okwakha ayimfuneko kubacebisi, oogqirha, nabaquququzeleli benkqubo ngokufanayo.

Ingxoxo ngesakhiwo sikarhulumente kunye notshintsho ithathe ixesha elide. Izazi zezoqoqosho zezobupolitika ziye zabonisa ukuba “kubadlali” — abantu okanye amaqela afuna isivumelwano sokuguqula — bangavala kwaneenguqu ezicwangcisiweyo. Ngokwahlukileyo, iinkqubo ezivumela inyathelo elipheleleyo legunya elilawulayo linyanzeleka xa kusenziwa uhlengahlengiso olubuhlungu, kodwa lisenokungafumani uvavanyo olufunekayo ukuze kuphetshwe iimpazamo zenkqubo. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela izakhiwo ezahlukeneyo zikarhulumente ezinceda ngayo okanye ezithintela ngayo iinguqulelo zezoqoqosho kunye nokuzinziwa kwe-privation, ukuzoba ubungqina obudityanisiweyo kunye nokunika ubuchule bokuhlalutya.

Ukuzoba Umhlaba: Ukwakhiwa korhulumente

Inkqubo yePalamente

Kwinkqubo yepalamente, isebe eliphetheyo (ikhabhathi kunye nenkokeli yephondo) lizalelwe kwindlu yowiso-mthetho. Oku kudityaniswa kwamandla kungavelisa utshintsho olukhawulezayo okanye ukungaqiniseki okuphazamisayo, kuxhomekeke kumiselo lweqela. Urhulumente omnye wecawa — njengakwi-United Kingdom okanye New Zealand ngexesha elikhulu lemfazwe — ungayimisela ngokukhawuleza imithetho ngenxa yokuba umlawuli olawulayo ulawulo lwemithetho. Noko ke, xa oorhulumente abanqongopheleyo bengumthetho, njengase-Itali okanye e-Sirayeli, ulungiso lwezinzo lungapheliswa ngemfuneko yokwanelisa izilangazelelo zamaqela amaninzi.

Uqeqesho lwamaqela epalamente yenye indlela enzima. Kwisixokelelwano seskwenkwe seqela elinamandla, iimvukelo zangasemva zinqabile, uvumela urhulumente ukuba azalisekise imilinganiselo yezoqoqosho engathandwayo kodwa efunekayo. Ngokuchaseneyo, iinkqubo ezinengqeqesho ebuthathaka okanye ezingakholeleki rhoqo zingabona utshintsho luguquka emva kotshintsho lukarhulumente.

Inkqubo yobuMongameli

Inkqubo yobumongameli yahlula amasebe alawulayo kunye nemithetho, ngalinye linemiyalelo ezimeleyo yokukhetha. Oku kwahlukana kungadala amathuba nemiqobo. Umongameli onenkoliso yemithetho exhasayo, enjenge-United States phantsi kwe-Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, anganyanzela ukuba kusetyenziswe iinguqu ezinkulu. Kodwa xa umongameli kunye nengqungquthela zilawulwa ngamaqela ahlukeneyo — imeko eyaziwa njengorhulumente owahluleleneyo — i-projekthi yemithetho isoloko iziphumo. Iinkqubo zomongameli ze-monki nazo zidla ngokufumana izicwangciso ezizinzileyo, ezinokuthi zinikezele kodwa ziphinde zikhusele isigqeqesi kwingcinezelo ethandwayo.

Imodeli engundoqo yenkqubo ezininzi zomongameli bubukho bovavanyo olunamandla kunye nolungelelwano, kuquka uhlolo olunokwahlulelwa kunye neendlu zowiso-mthetho ze-bidamaral. Ezi zingathintela utshintsho olukhawulezileyo okanye olubi, kodwa kwakhona ziphinda-phinda inani leencopho ze-veto. Ukubekwa phambili, oku kuthetha ukuba kwanomongameli ozinikeleyo angajongana neenyanga okanye iminyaka ephicothelwe phambi kokuba ishishini lelizwe elizimeleyo lithengiswe.

Inkqubo ye-Semi-Prestin kunye ne-Hybrid

IFransi, iRashiya, kunye namazwe amaninzi asemva kweSoviet asebenza phantsi kwesixokelelwano esincinane, apho umongameli onyulwe ngqo ahlala kunye nomphathi-mikhosi kunye nomphathi-mikhosi ojongene nepalamente. Ulungelelwaniso lwamandla luxhomekeke ekubeni iqela lomongameli liyalawula kusini na indlu yowiso-mthetho. Umanyano — xa umongameli kunye noninzi lwepalamente lukwimibutho eyahlukeneyo — lungadala ungquzuzulwano lwangaphakathi oluphelisa utshintsho lwezoqoqosho, njengoko lwabonwa eFransi ekupheleni konyaka ka-1990.

Ezinye iinkqubo ze-hydrogen, ezinjenge-Swiss Federal Council okanye ulawulo olusembindini lweQela lobuKomanisi laseTshayina, zijongeka zingenamdla wokuzimela lula. Kwinkqubo yolawulo olungqongqo okanye yeqela elinye, isantya sotshintsho sidla ngokuba siphezulu ngenxa yokuba abadlali beveto beye bapheliswa, kodwa ukungabi natyala kungakhokelela ekuhlaseleni kwengxubeko kunye nokonakala.

Umanyano lwezakhiwo

Ngapha koko ulwalamano oluphezulu nolawulo, ulwabelo lwemiba yamandla. Iinkqubo zomanyano (umz., IIndiya, Brazil, Jamani) zisusa igunya elibalulekileyo kumazwe okanye kumaphondo. Oku kungabangela uvavanyo lotshintsho — uphuhliso lwenkqubo yomgangatho karhulumente lungalinganiswa — kodwa lukwadala imida emininzi ebangela uphazamiso olunzima. Umzekelo, eIndiya, imigudu karhulumente ophakathi yokuhlisa isibonda semigodi yelahleko yaxelwa ixesha elide ngokuxhathisa kwelizwe lokuthwala amalahle.

Iinkqubo ezidibanisayo (umz., eFransi, eJapan) zinikela ingqalelo kumbindi, zisenza kube lula ukuzalisekisa utshintsho lwesizwe — kodwa zikwasengozini yokungakuhoyi ukutshintsha kwemimandla esenokufuna iindlela ezilungeleleneyo.

Abaxhasi Botshintsho Lwezoqoqosho Nolawulo

Igunya Elilawulayo Eligqalwa Ngokunzulu Nokuthanda Kwezobupolitika

Xa inkokeli okanye iqela elilawulayo linogunyaziso olucacileyo lokhetho kunye nezithintelo ezimbalwa zomthetho, izithintelo zingahamba ngokukhawuleza. Oku kusoloko kungumzekelo kwiinkqubo zepalamente ezinezikhulu ezibini ezidityanisiweyo. Utshintsho oluthe kratya lwezoqoqosho lwaseNew Zealand kuma 1980, oluquka ukukhutshwa kolawulo, urhwebo olukhululekileyo, kunye nokwenziwa kwempahla zikarhulumente, kwaqhutywa ngurhulumente we-Labour owayelawula ipalamente. Ngokukwanjalo, ukulawulwa kwemali yengqesho yemali yemali ephantsi kolawulo lwephondo ekuqaleni koo 1980 kwaqalishwa ngumlawuli wolawulo-mkhosi ongazange amelane nenkcaso kulawulo lwemithetho.

Noko ke, igunya eliphakamileyo likrele elinokukhusela kabini. Ngaphandle kovavanyo oluzimeleyo, utshintsho lungayilwa kancinci okanye lubanjwe iinzuzo kwiqela eliphambili. Isitshixo sikukuba uthanda ngamandla kwezobupolitika, xa zidityaniswe neetechnocrat ezifanelekileyo kunye neenkqubo ezicace gca, zingayiphelisa i-intria eqhekezayo iinkqubo ezihlaselayo.

Ukusingqongileyo Okuqinileyo Kwezobupolitika Nokungachatshazelwa

Abanikazi bomngeni-mali kufuneka baxelelwe kwangaphambili. Amalungiselelo karhulumente avelisa iminqophiso eqinileyo okanye icandelo elinye lobungangamsha anciphisa ubungozi bokuba iziphumo zotshintsho ziya kutshintshwa emva konyulo olulandelayo. Iinkqubo zobuMongameli, kunye neemeko zazo ezizinzileyo, zinganika uzinzo nokuba umlawuli ophetheyo akathandwa, logama nje umongameli ehleli ekho. Kwelinye icala, urhulumente udla ngokuwa rhoqo kwiinkqubo zepalamente (umz., oorhulumente base-699 ba-9 basusela ku-19464) abathi ukutyala utyalo lwexesha elide, kwaye abenzi bakhathazeli ekuthengisweni abaxhasi.

Ukumanyana kuxhomekeke ekuzimeleni kwamaziko aphambili. Xa iibhanki ezisembindini, amaziko alawulayo, namaqumrhu achasene nokonakala ekhuselwa ekungeneleleni kwezobupolitika — njengakwinkqubo yepalamente yaseJamani okanye kwinkqubo yomongameli waseChile — ukuthembeka kuyanyuka.

Inkcitho esebenzayo kunye nobuchule bolawulo

Utshintsho kunye nokubekwa kwemithetho akuphelelanga nje ekudluliseni imithetho; kufuneka ukuba kubekho imikhosi ekwaziyo ukudalisa iinkqubo zokuthengisa, iimpahla, kunye nokulawula ukutshintsha. Amazwe anezithethe ezinamandla zomsebenzi wempumlo, njengeSingapore neNew Zealand, angakwazi ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo ezintsonkothileyo zokuzilungisa. Ngokwahlukileyo, amazwe anamaziko abuthathaka angabona ukukhutshelwa kwengeniso ephambili okanye ukonakala.

Izakhiwo zikarhulumente ezikhuthaza ukuthotyelwa kwegunya nokukhusela abasebenzi bezopolitiko ekudutyulweni kwezobupolitika (njengokuba kusetyenziswa iinkqubo ezininzi zepalamente) zityekele ekwakheni isikhundla esiphezulu solawulo. Iinkqubo zomongameli ezinoncedo olunzima, ngokwahlukileyo, zingazalisa amaziko karhulumente nabamiselwe kwezobupolitika, zibenza bangabi namali yokuzibeka ngokweenkonzo kamva.

Indima yabalawuli abazimeleyo kunye neenja ezigadileyo

Ukubekwa kweprojekthi ngempumelelo kudla ngokufuna ukusekwa kwemibutho ezimeleyo elawula iimarike ezisandul' ukunikwa inkululeko. Umzekelo, inkqubo yepalamente ye-UK yadala abalawuli abanjengo-Ostem no-Oscom. Ngokufanayo, iinguqulelo ze-telecom yaseIndiya zancedwa ligunya elinamandla lokulawula. Ukubakho kwamaziko anjalo kunciphisa ingozi yokuba amaqela azimeleyo athathele indawo ezo mithetho, nto leyo enokuvelisa inkxaso yezopolitiko.

Ukuhambelana nokuTshintsha Izoqoqosho

Ukungabi Nakusebenza Kwezobupolitika Nokuguquka Ngokuthe rhoqo Kukarhulumente

Oorhulumente abaphila ixeshana elifutshane baphakathi kweyona miqobo inamandla ekuguquleni. Kumazwe aneengqili-cawa ezininzi okanye asoloko engazithembi, ixesha elithe gqi lolwelo lwabenzi bomgaqo-siseko liyancipha. Akukho rhulumente ufuna ukuchitha ikomkhulu lezobupolitika kwiinguqu ezibuhlungu ezinokuthwala iziqhamo kuphela emva kokuwa kwayo. Le ngxaki inzulu kakhulu kwiinkqubo zepalamente ngobuchule bokulinganisa kunye nokwahlulwa-hlula-hlula-hlula, njenge-Itali ngoo 1990 okanye uSirayeli kwimbali yayo.

Urhwaphilizo Noxhathiso Lwaseburhulumenteni

Urhwaphilizo aluphazamisi nje kuphela ubuncwane kodwa lukwadala amaqela anamandla abonakalisa inzala achasene nokubonakala nokukhuphisana. Kwinkqubo enee-checks nezikali ezibuthathaka — nokuba yi-presidenti okanye yipalamente — abaphathi abalawulayo basenokusebenzisa i-privatiation ukuvuza i-cronation. Xa izakhiwo zikarhulumente zivumela abalawuli ukuba bayeke ukuhlola imithetho (umz., ngokomthetho kumgaqo othile weenkqubo zobumongameli), ukubekwa kwe-printa okunokuba yinqwelo-mafutha yokufumana imali kunokuba iphumelele. Ubuchule beRashiya bungumzekelo olumkisayo: ukungabikho kolawulo olusebenzayo lwezitshixo-ofisi zezoshishino-o-o-ogracrackist projectives.

Kwelinye icala, iinkqubo ezinamaqumrhu alwa nokunganyaniseki nezizimeleyo — njengolawulo lwepalamente yaseSweden — zidala iimeko apho ukukhuphisana kunokwenzeka ngakumbi ukuba kuveliswe iimarike zokhuphiswano.

Ukunikela Ingqalelo Yamandla Nokungabikho Kwentezamiso

Ngelixesha iveto ezininzi kakhulu abadlali be-veto benokuthi bathintele utshintsho, lumbalwa kakhulu olunokuvelisa utshintsho oluthi lungaphucuke emva kokuthenga isolithithi kwaye luguquke kamva. Kwinkqubo zomongameli apho iqela elinye lilawula onke amasebe, ulwakhiwo olubanzi lungangabi yimfuneko, kodwa utshintsho lungapheliswa xa inkcaso ekugqibeleni iphumelela. Utshintsho lwesakhiwo seChile phantsi kwePinochet lwaxhaswa kakhulu emva kokubuyela kwidemokhrasi, kodwa kuphela ngenxa yokuba inkcaso idiso idiso idiwe okanye iziphumo zingqineke ziluncedo. Noko ke, kumazwe amaninzi, utshintsho olubangelwa lumanyano olunciphileyo luphinde lwarhoxiswa ngokukhawuleza.

Abadlali Abanemincili: Amagosa Asemthethweni, Iinkundla Namaqabane Asekuhlaleni

Inani labadlali beveto kunye nomahluko — amaziko okanye abadlali abafuna imvume yokutshintsha inkqubo — banokunyanzelisa utshintsho oluqatha. Kwinkqubo yomongameli, umphathi ophetheyo umele asoloko ethethana nendlu yowiso-mthetho eyahlukeneyo; kwiinkqubo zikarhulumente, amaqela asezantsi esizwe angaluthintela utshintsho lwesizwe; kumazwe aneenkundla zomgaqo-siseko, ukuhlaziywa komthetho-siseko, ukuhlaziywa kweprojekthi kusenokucelw'ucelw'ici ngokwa ngokwaphulwa kwamalungelo empahla. Kwanemibutho labasebenzi kunye namaqumrhu eshishini asebenza njengabadlali abakwimodeli enziwe ngokusemthethweni, njengakwimodeli yeJamani.

Umzekelo owaziwayo we-veto-drop owenziwe ngoomatiloshe kukusilela kwe-United States ukumisela utshintsho olubanzi lwezonyango kangangamashumi eminyaka, nangona amandla afanayo enokuthintela ukuhlaziywa. Ngokomzekelo, imigudu yeIndiya yokuqhatha amacandelo kawonke-wonke enkcaso kumaqumrhu abasebenzi namaqela ezobupolitika, kwaye inkqubela yayicotha de ukungazinziswa kweengxaki zamazwe kwawaphazamisa amandla.

Uvavanyo Lomzekelo

INew Zealand: Ilabhu yoHlaziyo YePalamente

Ngaphantsi kwenkqubo yokuqala yepalamente ehamba phambili noorhulumente abaninzi abahlukeneyo, iNew Zealand yaguquka kakhulu ngokwezoqoqosho phakathi ko-1984 no1993. ILabour kunye noorhulumente besizwe basusa iimarike zemali, inkxaso-mali, kunye ne-priveted tetransformation, iinqwelo-moya, kunye neziporo. Ukungabikho kwabadlali — kuphela igumbi lowiso-mthetho kunye noorhulumente ababuthathaka basekuhlaleni — kwavunyelwa utshintsho olukhawulezileyo. Noko ke, utshintsho lwaguquka ngokwenxenye okanye lwalungiswa kwiminyaka eyalandelayo, lubonisa ukuba amandla aphezulu anokukhokelela ekuphathweni. Ukuguqulwa kweminye kweqela yemiba yeqela ku19966 kuthe kwahamba kancinci, kodwa ixesha langaphambili lihlala likho incwadi yokulungisa indlela yolungiso. [FF:]

IChile: Idemokhrasi, ulawulo-siseko, kunye nolungiso loHlaziyo

Amava eChile abonisa indlela isakhiwo sikarhulumente esichaphazela ngayo utshintsho kungekuphela nje utshintsho kodwa kwanolungiso. Umkhosi wejanta (1973-1990) wasebenzisa amandla awo apheleleyo ukuzalisekisa utshintsho olukhulu lwentengiso, kuquka ukuhlaziywa kokhuseleko lwentlalo, impilo, kunye nemfundo. Xa idemokhrasi ibuya, urhulumente omtsha wagcina uninzi lwale miba yenguquko ngenxa yokuba wadala iinguqu ezinamandla zoncedo nomgaqo-siseko wafuna iinguqu ezinkulu. Inkqubo yomongameli weChile, idityaniswe nesebe elizimeleyo elisembindini lebhankini, idibaniswe nesebe elizimeleyo lemali, ibone isakhiwo esizinzileyo sokulungisa iinguquko. Kanti ukubekwa kwamandla kulawulo oluphezulu kulawulo lwe-pritation, njengokuthengiswa kwezoshishino phantsi kwexabiso lemali. [FFF]

EIndiya: IiNqaba - ntshintshi ZePalamente Yomanyano

Inkqubo yepalamente yengingqi yeIndiya idibanisa ulawulo olunamandla noorhulumente abanamandla kunye necandelo elininzi. Iinguquko zezoqoqosho kunye nokuhlaziywa kwemali azizange zibe zinhle. Unyaka ka1991 wokulungelelanisa inkxalabo yemali urhulumente ophakathi wavumela urhulumente ophakathi ukuba anyanzeleke ngokukhuthuza ngenxa yokuba imeko yezobupolitika iye yancitshiswa okwethutyana abadlali. Kodwa amaza otshintsho alandelayo aye alandelwa ngamaqela, oorhulumente, neenkundla. Umzekelo, ukubekwa koobhanki kunye neenkampani ze-inshorensi kusoloko kuvinjwe ngokuphindaphindiwe ngamaqumrhu axhaswa ngabasebenzi abaxhakamfulwayo. Okwangoku, i-telgoam kunye nokuhlazimliselwa kwemibutho lamazwe azimeleyo aye alawulwa ngurhulumente, yaye agcinwa ngurhulumente ombini. Umthetho wehlabathi ulawulo lwe-Bran [FT] [FFF] [1]

Ukukhuthaza Utshintsho Kwimimiselo Karhulumente

Ukuqonda isakhiwo sikarhulumente asiyonto nje izifundo. Kunentsingiselo esebenzayo kubahlaziyi, imibutho yezizwe kunye nabanikazi. Apho iveto ingobuninzi, abaguquli kufuneka bakhe imibutho ebanzi, basebenzise amanqam okuzalana kwemali ukwenza iifestile zethuba, okanye utshintsho olulandelelanayo ukuze banciphise inkcaso. Kwinkqubo ezinamandla okulawula, abaguquli kufuneka bagxininise ukuba mhlophe nokuzimela ukuze bathintele ukuxhaseka.

Ukuzichaza ngokungqalileyo, ukukhetha indlela yemicimbi. Ukuququzelela imicimbi, uludwe lukawonke-wonke, kunye nomqeshwa uthengelwano ngalunye olulingana nemeko eyahlukeneyo yezobupolitika. Kwimithetho yepalamente enengqeqesho eqinileyo, inkqubo yokubekwa kwesakhiwo esibanzi inokuqulunqwa ngokukhawuleza. Kwinkqubo yomongameli enorhulumente owahluleleneyo, abaguquli bangajolisa ingqalelo kwimicimbi encinane, encinane karhulumente, engakwaziyo ukuchanabeka kwezobupolitika kuqala ukuze kwakhiwe ukuthenjwa.

Isiphelo

Ukwakhiwa korhulumente asikuko ukunqunyulwa, kodwa ivumela ngamandla indlela kunye nesantya sotshintsho lwezoqoqosho kunye nokubekwa phambili. Iinkqubo zePalamente ezineziqu eziphambili ezisebenza kunye zinokuba zii-injini zotshintsho olukhawulezileyo, kodwa zinokuba sengozini yokuqhatha nokubuyiselwa. Iinkqubo zomongameli zinganika uzinzo kodwa zinika imigca enqamlezekileyo. Iinkqubo zomanyano zivumela uvavanyo kodwa luvumela ukuba luntsonkothane nomanyano lwesizwe. Njengoko amazwe aqhubeka ezama ukumelana nobunzima bobuzwe kunye nobuchule bobugcisa obusebenza kunye nobuchule obusebenza kunye — hayi ngokuchasene — nezixhokongoobuchule obusungulwe yimeko zorhulumente. [[0] I-Strective, izakhiwo ezisebenzayo, kunye nezobupolitika ziya kuhlala zihleli kwizinto ezigxekayo, kodwa indlela ezidityaniswe ngayo kumgaqo-mo-mo yezopolitiki. [5]