Ukwazisa

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States umi njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, umisela isakhiwo sikarhulumente worhulumente wesizwe kwaye ubala amalungelo abantu asisiseko. Nangona uxwebhu lwantlandlolo lungazange luluthintele ucalucalulo okanye luqinisekise ukulingana ngokwengqiqo yale mihla, ukupheliswa nokucaciswa kwalo kuye kwaba zizixhobo ezinamandla ekulweni nocalucalulo. Ukusuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukuya kuMphengululo weMgaqo-siseko we-14 kunye nangaphaya kwawo, umGaqo-siseko uye wasetyenziswa ukuphelisa ukunqoba imigaqo elungelelanisiweyo nokukhuthaza ukusetyenziswa okulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko, izigqibo zeNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo, kunye neengxoxo eziqhubekayo ezibumba indlela umGaqo-siseko oqhuba ngayo ucalucalu-lulo noqhube nolungele umgangatho.

Isiqalo: Ukumisela Umgangatho Wokusesikweni Nomgangatho

ISihlomelo sivakalisa iinjongo zoMgaqo-siseko: “Thina bantu baseUnited States, silungele ukwakha i-Union egqibeleleyo, simisela uBume obusesikweni, siqinisekisa ukuba i-Franquality, silungiselela ukhuseleko oluqhelekileyo, sikhuthaza iNtlalo-ntle, kwaye sikhusela iintsikelelo zeNkululeko, simisela lo mGaqo-siseko weUnited States. Ibinzana elithi“Thina ” sinomvuzo ngexesha laso, siqinisekisa ukuba igunya likarhulumente lifumene imvume yabalawuli kuneyo kukumkani. Nangona umGaqo-siseko wantla ungazange wandise ubumi okanye amalungelo amabhinqa, amakhoboka, okanye abantu base-Inizi, ukubiza kwe-Prevergassiodssss ngo-“ Justice no-Geneltyrty [iiia] ngenxa yendlela yokuchaza isiseko sesizwe.

IBhili Yamalungelo: Ukukhusela Inkululeko Yomntu Ngamnye Kulawulo Olungaphezu Kolwamagunya Karhulumente

Izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi, ezagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, zaziwa njengeBhili yamaLungelo. Zayilelwa ukumisela amandla karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kunye nokukhusela inkululeko yabantu. Ekuqaleni, ezi zindululo zasetyenziswa kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, kodwa ngemfundiso yokuqukwa kwe-(-"ingcaciso yeSicwangciso soMgqibeko se-14) u-Celas-eastem-netic) ngoku isebenza kurhulumente nakurhulumente wasekuhlaleni ngokufanayo.

Uhlaziyo Lokuqala: Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nendibano

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo uqinisekisa inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yendibano nelungelo lokucela urhulumente.

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesine: Ukukhusela Kwizinto Ezingekho Mthethweni Nezingekho Mthethweni

Abemi beSindululo sesine soMphetho-mvandedwa bagada ukuphazamisana norhulumente ngokuzimela. Nangona kungenjalo kucacile ngokulingana, kuye kwacelwa ukukhusela kwayo kwiimeko zobuhlanga kunye nomthetho wobupolisa. Whren v. United States[ [1966], iNkundla yavumela ukumiswa kwemibhalo engaphambili, abagxeki bephikisa ukuba abantu bachaphazele imibala eninzi. Noko ke, kutshanje Utah v. Strieff[FLT:] (20) ixanduva ngokutsha malunga nendlela okunokusetyenziswa ngayo ukulawulwa kwemithetho yesine egqwethalisa umthetho wobuhlanga.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

UHlaliso lweNkqutyana lukwalela ukugqithisa kwebheyile, ukuhlawuliswa okugqithisileyo, kunye nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga. Kuye kwangundoqo ukulwa nolwahlulelo oluyingozi oluyingozi kwabamangalelwa abambalwa. Furman v. Georgia[] [772]], iNkundla yasiphelisa isigwebo sokufa njengoko sisetyenziswa kumgaqo wobuhlanga nowokungalinganiyo, nangona kamva yaphakamisa imimiselo ehlaziyiweyo kwi- Gregg v. Georgia[[[FLT:]]][197]] [kutshanje]. Kutshanje, iNkutsha, iNkubeko isebenzise isiHlamkelo-sibhozo solawulo-mthetho wokuphelisa ubomi obuPhakathiyo ngaphandle kobuntwana, ukuqaphela ukuba abantwana abambalwa nokuqwalaniswa kwendlela yomntu ngamnye.

UMthetho We - 14 WezoHlaziyo: Iliwa Lomgangatho

I-Gradient eyamiswa ngowe-1868, iSiHlaliso seshumi elinesine saba yintsabelo engqalileyo kwizenzo ezingalungisiyo ezazijamelene nabantu ababengamakhoboka emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya. Sineengxelo eziliqela ezingundoqo, kodwa eyona nto ibalulekileyo ekucombululeni ucalucalulo nguMgaqo-nkqubo ka-Celas: “Akukho rhulumente... oya kukhanyela nabani na onegunya lokukhusela imithetho efanayo.” Eli binzana liye laba sisixhobo esiphambili somgaqo-siseko sokuvavanya imithetho noqheliselo lweziko lolwaphulo-mthetho.

Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Nomgangatho Wobuhlanga

ICentume Development Claus yachazwa okokuqala ngokufutshane Plessy v. Ferguson [1896], apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaxhasa ucalulo lohlanga phantsi kwe-“endibaniselane” imfundiso. Ngaphezu kwesiqingatha sekhulu leminyaka kamva, iNkundla yakwala oko kubamba Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo [[FLT:]] Brown [[5]] v.[FLT] [1] [195]] [195], ichaza ukuba “izakhiwo zemfundo azinanto injalo.[FLT] [iiiiiinqanqathe] ide ide phantsi i-devicessss zombutho wamalungelo abantu baseziko, ithetha inkundla yemithetho yomthetho, kwaye ithetha ukuba ityala elinguquququze kungene inteko lomthetho womthetho womthetho.[Foth]

Umgangatho wesini kunye nobukhulu obuphakathi

Ukhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus lukwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwisondo, nangona umgangatho wokuzihlola uquka ukuhlolisisa okuphakathi kunokuyihlolisisa ngokungqongqo. [[FLT:]] Craig v. Boren [197], iNkundla yathi ukucalucalulwa kwamabhinqa ngokwesini makube kunxulumene kakhulu nomdlalo obalulekileyo karhulumente. Izigqibo ziquka [[FLT:] u-197]. Imithetho ephathweswe ngamadoda akhetha amabhinqa njengoomphathi bezabetho; [FLT] Fronson]. [2FLT] [5] [3], eyathi i-197] i-evicel' imithetho esetyenziswa ngamabhinqa kunye neenzuzo zomkhosi [Foctive [5], [4] i-unicet orgt], [iegnomes .[4] I-Gromedisovol) exhasa i-S siseko se- siseko se- siseko se- siseko se

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo kunye noMthetho-

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, uKhuselo olulinganayo noMsebenzi u-Celales luye lwasetyenziswa ukukhusela amalungelo e-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. " Ngaphambili [OFLT: 0] well v. Hodges [2015], iNkundla yamkela umtshato ofanayo---owona kanye njengomthetho obalulekileyo phantsi kwazo zombini iindidi, igxininisa ukuba “uMgaqo-siseko uthembisa inkululeko kubo bonke abantu abakwindawo yawo. [3] Lor.[FLT:][196]] [196], iNkuvolumo yavulela phantsi iColoradom eyalelwe phantsi, eyalelwe ukuba inqandelo oluchasene nohlobo oluchasene nocacineyo, ukusetyenziswa kwesiseko socaphulo olusekelwe kwi-compulu-colcen, kodwa i-ethenti i-ethenti i-ethenting, i-ethenting, i-ethentingng, i-ethe sy

Imfundiso Yomahluko

ISibonelelo se-Adth Demendment se-Account Programme Claus e-14th Sixtive isetyenziswa ukudibanisa inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo ngokuchasene namazwe, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko esisiseko ikhuselwe ngokulinganayo kulo lonke eli lizwe. Le nkqubo ibisoloko ibalulekile ekusebenziseni i-Okuqala, yesine, yesihlanu, neye-Entenummentationsss (ii-6, ne-8h Dementementationssss (ngendlela yokunciphisa umahluko wezwe kumalungelo abantu. [[FLT]], umzekelo, ilungelo lokuyamkeleka ([FLT]]]Gideon v.Gideon. Ngoku uGainright], uGenethiso nxamnye nolwaphulo-mthetho olungokwano olungomntu ongoongabozwanga, 1963], kunye nelungelo lokuzithethelela ngoku ngoku ngoku ngoku ngoku ngokuchasene nolwaphulo-mthetho-odwa.

Ukuvuma Amalungelo nomGaqo-siseko

Ukuncoma kungumsebenzi ophambili wokuthatha inxaxheba kwidemokhrasi, kwaye umGaqo-siseko uye walungiswa izihlandlo eziliqela ukuphelisa imiqobo yocalulo kumphathi zincwadi.

UMthetho - ngqangi We - 1870

“ Ilungelo labemi base-United States lokuvota aliyi kukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe nguUnited States okanye nguRhulumente ngenxa yohlanga, umbala, okanye imeko yobukhoboka ngaphambili." Ngaphandle kwesi siqinisekiso, kusungulwa irhafu yokuvota, iimvavanyo zokufunda nokubhala, iirejista, kunye nezoyikiso zogonyamelo lokususa amaBlack Cookitsting. Kwathatha malunga nenkulungwane phambi koMthetho wamaLungelo ka-Ofitethisi ka-65 ngokunempumelelo, ukuvalela ezi ndlela zolawulo kwaye kufuna ukuba ulawulo lwemithetho yembali yocalulo. Kamva iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaphelelwa liCandelo 5 elikwi-[Foctivection:]. [FLTreg.[FLD] v [FLT] .[FLPlation:] [2011]

ISindululo Seshumi Nesithoba (1920)

“ Ilungelo labemi baseUnited States lokuvota aliyi kukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe nguUnited States okanye nguRhulumente ngenxa yesondo.” Emva kwamashumi eminyaka ezenzo zobugqwirha bemibutho yamabhinqa, le mvume yakwalela ukucalucalula amabhinqa. Yayilinyathelo eliphawulekayo elikhokelela ekulinganani kwamabhinqa, nangona lawanceda kakhulu amhlophe; amabhinqa amaninzi anemibala emhlophe asajamelene nemiqobo esekelwe kwisizwe nakubume bobumi de kamva kumiselwe umthetho nenkundla.

UHlaziyo lwama-202 (1964)

“ Ilungelo labemi base-United States lokuvota nakoluphi na unyulo oluphambili okanye olunye... aliyi kukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe ... ngenxa yokusilela ukuhlawula nayiphi na irhafu yerhafu okanye enye irhafu.” Iirhafu ezirhafu zisetyenziswe ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto ukukhulula abavoti abaphantsi, ingakumbi ama-Afrikaan America kuMzantsi. Oku kupheliswa akuyi kususa umqobo wezoqoqosho ekuvoteleni, nangona eminye imiqathango engqongqo enjengemithetho yevoti ye-ID iqhubeka iphikisana ngokomo wokufikelela okulinganayo.

Uhlaziyo lweNkcubeko (19971)

“ Ilungelo labemi base-United States, abaneminyaka elishumi elinesibhozo ubudala okanye ngaphezulu, lokuvota alizukukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe ngenxa yobudala.” Le ntshukumo yathotywa ukusuka kuma-21 ukuya kwi-18, iphendulwe yimpikiswano yokuba abo bakhule ngokwaneleyo ukuba bangene emfazweni bafanele babe nelizwi kurhulumente wabo. Yandisa ukuvota kudidi olutsha lwabemi, inciphisa ucalucalulo olusekelwe kubudala ekuvoleni.

Ukunyanzelwa Kwamalungelo Okudlulisela Imali

Ngapha kwempinda, iNkundla ePhakamileyo itolike iSikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus ukuba sifune “umntu omnye, ivoti enye” (.Reynolds, 1964), ukususa iindlu zowiso-mthetho zelizwe ezidibanisiweyo ezihlanekeze ukuvota kwabantu basedolophini kunye nabambalwa. Ezi zigqibileyo zibonise ukuzinikela kohlanga lwe-gerrymanning (Shaw v. Reno, 1993, kunye no-Garryman (nazongakungabonisekiyokunga kuhlala). Ezi zigqithela izigqibo zomvo zomGenethiso-mGenethisomGenethi.

Iimbambano zale mihla kunye nokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko

Umbhalo womGaqo-siseko umisiwe, kodwa ukutolikwa kwawo kuyaguquka njengoko ibutho labantu litshintsha. Iingxoxo zale mihla ngocalucalulo nokulingana ngokufuthi zisekelwe kwindlela yokusebenzisa imigaqo yomgaqo - siseko kwiimeko ezintsha.

Isenzo Esiqinisekisayo

Imigaqo eqinisekisiweyo ijolise ekulungiseni ucalucalulo ngokwembali ngokuqwalasela ucalucalulo lohlanga okanye ubufanasini njengenye into ekuvulweni, ekuqeshweni, okanye ekufumaneni. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhasa ngokucutha iinkqubo ezithe ngqo ezithe ngqo zobuhlanga phantsi kohlalutyo olungqongqo, njengakwi [ i-Regtapedis yeYunivesithi yase California. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [12], [ezicwangciso ezikhoyo ze-Genespresession], [197], yaye ezisebenzisa ukhuphiso oluluvo oluthekileyo lungachaniwe , uk-1978], nolusebenzisa ukhupho lwe-e.[3]

Uchazo lohlanga kunye namalungelo onikezelo

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla yeNkundla ePhakamileyo . Clayton County [2020]) abantu baye bajongene nocalucalulo olusekelwe kubume be-transgender luluhlobo localulo lwesondo phantsi kweSihloko se-VII samalungelo abantu, imfundo, kunye neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke. Nangona iNkungagunyaziswanga ngumthetho weNkulawula, iye yaphembelela iinkundla ezisezantsi ukuchaza ukuKhuselwa kuka-Clauslaske. Umzekelo, iClastering jongssssssssss Irreexpoints nemigaqo yokuzimisela. I-XX.

Okusesikweni Kobuhlanga Nocalucalulo Olulawulwa Bubuhlanga

Intsebenziswano zale mihla njengeBlack Live Matter ibalaselise ukwahlukana okuqhubekayo kobuhlanga kwimithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho, indlu, umsebenzi, kunye nemfundo. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko ulwalela ucalulo ngesiquphe, abaninzi baphikisa ngelithi imithetho yobundilele inokuba neempembelelo ezinokuphinda ziphinde zidibane. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yafuna ubungqina obubonisa injongo yokungavumelani nocalucalucalulo kunokuba ingakwazi ukuphelisa impembelelo ekhoyo yokusungula ulwahlulo olulinganayo ([[FLT: 0]] Shington v. Davis, ngo-1976). Esi sakhiwo siye sagxekwa ngabaxhasi bamalungelo abantu abaphikisayo ukuba ingakwazi ukuthetha ngocalucalucalucalulo olukhoyo kwinkqubo yezelo. I-Gregisclatis, njengokuzama ukuqhuba kwemithetho esemthethweni yemithetho elawula i-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho, kodwa iqhubekela kwiimeko eziphethe ezikhombo zemithetho.

Ukulingana kwezoqoqosho nomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko awukuqinisekisi ngokucacileyo ukulingana kwezoqoqosho, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yala ukuvuma ilungelo lokufumana imigangatho encinane ephilayo okanye ukufikelela kwimithombo elinganayo. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [7773], iNkundla yakwala okokuba umgangatho wemali osekelwe kwimali yesikolo waphula i-Sutement Protective Clausle, ukuba imfundo asiyonto esisiseko phantsi komGaqo-siseko wezwelonke. Noko ke, imimiselo yemithetho isoloko inikela ukhuseleko olunamandla lwemfundo nentlalo-ntlalo, kunye nesiqinisekiso somGwalmGenegathe esikhoyo sisebenza kwimithetho esekelwe kwimiqathango zemali esekelwe kwimo ethile, njengokufikelela kwiinkundla ([F.[5]]]]

Isiphelo: UmGaqo-siseko njengomsebenzi ozinzileyo wokulingana

Indima yoMgaqo-siseko ekusingatheni ucalucalulo nokukhuthaza ukulingana iye yakhula kakhulu ukususela ngowe-1787. NgeBhili yamaLungelo, iSigqibo sokuHlaziya, kunye nolwandiso lwamalungelo okuvota, olu xwebhu luguqulwe lwaba sisixhobo esinamandla sokukhusela inkululeko yabantu kunye nokuqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo (`````````````````']]]''''''' iBrown' v. [iBroughn''''.'. [iBH.ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo yemfundo, i-[FLT]]] [[FLM]]] [iii-OFLT]] iwele v. uxwebhu oluhlala luneembalele kwi-Treanti, uxwebhu olusahluza ngokunjalo, uluthi olusayo oluthi oluqhelekileyo, oluthi oluthi oluthi olulungele ukusetyenziswayokusetyenziswayokugqibelela ukufezeka kwemfazwe, oluthe ukufezeka

[[UMTL_HAWU] Izibonelelo:[[UMKCU]