Isiseko somGaqo-siseko: Ukuqonda uHlomelo oluKhetheyo

IBill of Rights, eyagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, ekuqaleni yasebenza kurhulumente karhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Ama-United States ayekhululekile ukumisela imithetho yawo ngokuphathelele inkululeko esisiseko − amanye amalungelo akhuselweyo urhulumente wesizwe awayengenakuwaphatha, ngelinye ixesha amanye engawachukumisi. Oku kwadala umsebenzi omninzi wokukhusela kulo lonke ilizwe. UMthetho we 144th WesiHlayithi, owagunyaziswa ngo-1868, waguqula umhlaba ngokusungula i-Sct Proces Classias: “Akukho rhulumente oya kwenza okanye ukunyanzela nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukukhusela abemi baseUnited States; okanye nawuphi na uMbuso ongahluphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho.”

Kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ilutolike ngoko nangoko uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine njengolusebenzisa lonke ilungelo leBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe. Endaweni yoko, kwinkulungwane yama-20, iNkundla yaphuhlisa imfundiso ye yokukhetha [ukuqulunqwa . Phantsi kwale mfundiso, iNkundla ihlola ilungelo ngalinye kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukugqiba enoba “inyanzelela inkululeko" ngoko ke kufuneka inyanzelelwe nxamnye noorhulumente ngeKhosi siSicwangciso soMkhosi woMkhosi we-Enzelo Clausce. Le ndlela imele idibaniswe ngokwahlukileyo kwinkqubo epheleleyo, enokuthi isebenzise onke amalungiselelo.

Ukukhetha iNkundla ivumele iNkundla ukuba ilungelelanise ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko ukuze itshintshe imilinganiselo yoluntu ngexesha igcina ubuzwe. Iimeko zophawu olufana McDonald v. Chicago (2010]) isebenza njengemiboniso enamandla yendlela imfundiso esebenza ngayo kwaye kutheni ihlala isisixhobo esibalulekile sokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye.

Imbali yeNdlela yeMcDonald v. Chicago

Izigqibo Zokuqala Zokunxibelelana

Olu hambo lwaqala nge [[FLT: 0] Incocago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. Chicago (1897), apho iNkundla yafaka khona intetho yokuqala yeSigqibo sesihlanu sokulungisa intelekelelo epheleleyo efunekayo. Iqondo lokwenene lokuguquka kwe GOUT] v. [FLT][5] [12] [12] [12], xa iNkucebisa ukuba iNkuhlalo yokuqala iSinyuko sokuGalisa intetho yenkululeko nenkululeko yokushicilela isetyenziswe kumaphondo kwiMsebenzi yeNkqubo eBay Claus Eqhelekileyo, nangona ixhasa ukuqiniseka kweNkuphesa.[4]

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamalungelo Ezaphuli - mthetho

Ithuba leNkundla yeWarren labona ulwando olukhawulezileyo lokufakwa kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Mapp v.Ohio (1961]) wasebenzisa umthetho wokususa; Genon v. Wainwright [1963]) waquka ilungelo kwicebo; [FLT: 4.] [Miranda v. Arizona [196] zasungula izikhuseli zokuncinwa ngokuvala ityala. Ngasekupheleni koo 1960, inkoliso yamalungiselelo kaBill yamaLungelo aye adityaniswe ngokubalulekileyo; [ngendlela ezimbini: Ukuminxeka kweyesiThandeki yesithathu]

Umhlaba obekwe ngaphambili: IsiHlamli sesibini sokuHlaziya

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, intsingiselo yesiBini kunye nomlinganiselo wale mithetho yaphikiswa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ithethe ngqo ngalo mbandela ukususela kwiUnited States v. Miller (1939], eyayibandakanya umthetho karhulumente kwaye yanikela ukhokelo olucacileyo. Iinkundla ezininzi ezisezantsi zachaza uLawulo lwesibini njengokhusela ilungelo elidibene nenkonzo yemikhosi, hayi ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuba nemipu yezonophetho lweziququ. Ngenxa yoko, amaziko nemimandla yawisa uludwe olubanzi lolawulo lwemipu ngaphandle kokoyika ucelomngeni lomgaqo-siseko.

Le nto yatshintsha idirelity of Columbia v. Helter (2008), apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba (55-4] uGawulayo lwesibini lukhusela ilungelo lomntu lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo ukwenzela iinjongo ezisemthethweni, ezifana nokuzibopha ngqo kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Umbuzo wasala: Ngaba [[FLT:] Heller yayilityala elimalunga nequmrhu lomthetho (Hoshinto, D.C.), ngoko ke ukubamba kwalo akuzange kubophe ngqo imeko kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Umbuzo washiyeka: Ngaba, [FLT] usebenzise kumthetho wesibini kulwazi oluwe-1450?

ICandelo neSigqibo

Inyaniso Nembali Engokwembali

IChicago yayinomnye wemithetho engqongqo yelizwe. Emva Heller , isixeko sagcina ukuvalwa kompu, siphikisa ngelithi uHlaziyo lwesibini aluzange lusebenze kumazwe. UMgaqo-nkqubo wesibini kunye nabanye abemi baseChicago bamangalele, belwa ukuba ukuvalwa kwabo umlomo kwaphule ilungelo lokugcina ummputhi kwikhaya. Inkundla yesithili neNkundla yeSibini yezibheno ixhasa umthetho kaChicago, ixhomekeke kwimizekelo yokuba uHlamkelo lwesibini aluzange luqukiwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yanika uxanduva oluphezulu igunyazisa ukucombulula umbuzo.

Isigqibo SeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Kwisigqibo esi-5-4 esaquluntwa nguJaji Samuel Atalito, iNkundla yaguqula iinkundla ezisezantsi yaza yathi uMphetho wesibini usebenza ngokupheleleyo kumaphondo ngeSicwangciso soLawulo lweMthethweno se 144. INkundla yasebenzisa uvavanyo olukhethayo olusetyenzisiweyo . ULouisiana [1968] [iiiindlela yokuzilungisa]: ukuba ilungelo lixhomekeke kwicebo lethu lokukhulula” kwaye “lisekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga.

INkundla ixhomekeke kwingxelo yembali, kuquka ubungqina bokuba iziHlamli zoLawulo lweshumi elinesine ngenjongo yokukhusela amalungelo esibini oMgaqo-nkqubo nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente. IJaji Alito yabhala ukuba “uMthetho wesibini wokuHlaziya ukhusela ilungelo elisisiseko kwicebo lethu lenkululeko egunyazisiweyo” kwaye ngoko ke kufuneka liqulunqe. Esi sigqibo sikwacaphula i-ST Proceswork Clause kunokuba sicaine okanye ama-Imtunities Clausce, nangona abagwebi abaliqela babonise ulwano ngendlela yokugqibela ebhaliweyo.

Iimbono Ezihambisanayo Nezingavumelaniyo

IJaji uClarence Thomas yavumelana ngokwahlukileyo, iphikisa ngelithi amalungelo okanye amaGama abizwa ngokuba nguClaus(*) hayi i-'Sced Processol Claus(*) kufuneka ibe sisithuthi sokudibanisa. Wayigxeka imfundiso ekhethayo yeNkundla njengengenasiseko sombhalo esizinzileyo kwaye wakhuthaza ukubuyela kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yeMthethweni weshumi elinesine.

Abaphikisi abane − Justices Stevens, Breyer, Ginsburg, kunye neSotomayotor(argegus) baphikisa ukuba inkoliso yaphaphazanyiswa ngokubandakanya uMphetho wesibini. IJaji Breyer yabhala uvumo olude lokungqina ukuba ilungelo lokuphatha iintambo alilulekanga ngendlela efanayo nentetho okanye unqulo, nokuba iNkundla ifanele ilibambele kurhulumente nakurhulumente wemipu. IJaji Stevens yaphikisa ukuba i-STIR Proces Claine yayingumzila ongafanelekanga kwaye ubungqina bembali abuchananga.

Impembelelo yexesha elide neyangokomzuzwana ye McDonald v. Chicago

Imithetho karhulumente neyokusetyenziswa kwemipu yasekuhlaleni

Ngokudibanisa uHlaziyo lwesibini, [[FLT: 0] uMcDonald yabeka amawaka esizwe kunye nemithetho yemipu yasekuhlaleni kwimpinda yomgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla kulo lonke ilizwe zaqalisa ukusebenzisa isiseko senyathelo lesibini ephuhlisiweyo kunye [[FLT]] ne [FLT]McDonald[[]: okokuqala, gqiba ukuba ihambo elawulwayo ibekwe kumbhalo ocacileyo wesiBini lokuHlaziweyo; okwesibini, ukuba, ngoko ke, sebenzisa uhlobo oluthile lohlolo olunyukileyo. Oku kwakhokelela kucelomngeni ekuthinteleni ulawulo lwelixaso lwelizwe, uhlaselo lwezixhobo, ukuphatha okufihlakeleyo kunye nokubhalisa iimfuno.

Impembelelo yamalungelo obuqu

Esi sigqibo saqinisa ingcamango yokuba ilungelo lokuzikhusela ekhaya lingundoqo wenkululeko enokuthi ichaze ukuba ayichaphazeli ngokungekho ngqiqweni. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zisoloko ziphakamisa imimiselo enobungcathu `njengekuhlola okungasemva kunye namathuba okulinda) kodwa yagalela phantsi kufuphi-kuphela kokuvalwa komsebenzi okanye umthwalo ogqithisileyo. Umthetho walungisa indlela kwiimeko zamva ezifana United States v. Rahimi[ [2024], eyayithetha ngamalungelo esibini enziwayo iSinyuso somphelo kumo wogonyamelo lwasekhaya oluthintela imiyalelo.

Ukuqiniswa Kwemfundiso Ekhethekileyo

[[NTLT: 0] iqinisekisa ukuzimisela kweNkundla ukuququzelela ngokukhetha njengendlela yokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Ngokusebenzisa uvavanyo olusisiseko lwamalungelo I-Dunton[, iNkundla ibonisa ukuqhubekeka kwamatyala angaphambili. Oku kuthetha ukuba ikamva lithetha ukuba imigudu yokufaka amanye amalungelo angadityaniswanga (njengokuba umgaqo wesithathu weSihlalo se-Oar Amend ment ulwelo okanye umgaqo omde-8 wokuhlaziyileyo) uya kulandela indlela efanayo. nyanisekiwe [FLT:] . [FLT] . v [FPT][5]

Ingqikelelo Ekhethiweyo: Imfundiso Kwindaleko

Indima Yenkqubo Eza Kulandelwa NguClaus

I-Bact Claus Process Claus ivunywe njengesixhobo esibhetyebhetye sokudibanisa. Inkundla isoloko ibambelele kwelokuba igatya elikhusela kuphela loo lungelo “elikwingcamango yenkululeko eyalelekileyo,” imigangatho ecacisiweyo kwi Palko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [1937]]. Lo mlinganiselo ufuna ukuba ekunene kube yimfuneko ukuba inkululeko okanye okusesikweni kungabikho ukuba kunikelwe ngenkonzo. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkuNkundla ifake phantse zonke izikhuseli zeBhili yamaLungelo, ukusuka kwintetho yokuqala kunye nemithetho yokushicilela intenxanxa-mbili yemingxube-yo yokuzikhusela.

Amalungelo Nezinto Ezinokuthenjwa Zexesha Elizayo

Ngowama-2025, ngamalungiselelo ambalwa kuphela asasetyenziswayo: iSiHlaliso sesithathu (isalathisi esingumkhosi), imfuneko ebalaseleyo yokuchophela ityala leNkqutyana yokuHlaziya iMpatho-mthetho, kunye netyala leNkundla yeSebethi lokuchophela amatyala. Ngamathuba athile iNkundla iye yabonisa ukuba ikulungele ukuphinda ijonge imbambano yoMmiselo weSebendente, kodwa akukho lucelomngeni luye lwafikelela kwinkundla ephakamileyo kutshanje. ISindululo sesithathu soHlaziselo asikhange sinikelwe kwityala elinzulu; inikwe isiqinisekiso sale nkonzo yale mihla iphela, asisoze sifumaneke.

Ukuthelekisa uHlahlelo loHlelo ngaphaya kwamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko

UMthetho Wokuqala Wokulungiswa: Umgangatho Wegolide

Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala wentetho, ukucofa, indibano, isicelo, kunye nokuzilolonga ngokukhululekileyo kwakuphakathi kwezokuqala ezakufakwa. Gitrow v. New York (1925) yavula ucango, kwaye ngo1940 uMphetho wokuqala weSimemezelo wakhululwa kumazwe nge-AUT Processol Claus. Oku kwaqinisekisa ukuba amazwe akanakukwazi, umzekelo, akwenza ulwaphulo-mthetho luchase ngokuphela ngenxa yokuba akhuthaza iingcamango ezingathandekiyo Branburg v.[12][FLT][3:] [196]

Isenzo Sezaphuli - mthetho: Unqulo Olubanzi

Elesi-5, eyeSithandathu, neyesi-8 IziHlaliso ziphantse zafakwa ngokupheleleyo. Mapp v. Ohio (1961) wasebenzisa umthetho wokususa; Gedeon v. [[FLT:][FLT]][5] (66] izilumkiso ezifunekayo phambi kokuncinwa kwemali. Inkundla iquka iimeko zokunika icebiso elifanelekileyo kwi-[FLT:]] v. [FT][6] [5]] [5], [indlela] i-FLT] i-FLT] ithelela imigaqo-engako.[3]

IsiHlomelo Sesibini: Esona Sihlaziyiweyo Kodwa Esisisiseko

[[NTL:0] McDonald ime njengeyona meko ibalulekileyo yenkulungwane yama-21. Ukuma kwayo ukuba ilungelo lesibini lokuHlaziya lisisiseko kuthetha ukuba ulawulo lwesibini lumele lunikezele ubuncinane njengorhulumente wezwe. Isigqibo sibangele impikiswano enzulu malunga nokuba ekunene kwandiswa kangakanani na, umzekelo, nokuba iyakhusela ukuthwala imipu kuwonke-wonke-wonke, kodwa yaqinisekisa ngokuqinileyo ukuba ukuLayishwa kwesibini akusekho kuGqiniswa okupheleleyo.

Ukugxekwa nokhuselo lokukhetha

Ukugxekwa

Abanye abaphengululi nabagwebi baphikisa ngelithi ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kungumgwebo ongekho mthethweni. IJaji uThomas, njengoko kuphawuliwe, iye yagxeka i-Theat Procession Claus esekelwe kwi-'" kunye “nemfundiso engasebenziyo' ne-"umbhalo". Abanye baphikisa ukuba iNkundla ibinobundlobongela kakhulu, intluphendu yesibini yemigaqo karhulumente malunga neemeko zasekuhlaleni. Abahlalutyi bakwalatha ekusetyenzisweni okungalinganiyo: amalungelo athile (njengokuba nelungelo lokuphatha izixhobo) afakwa emva kwexesha, ngoxa amanye (njengelilungelo lokululeka) enziwa ngokukhawuleza. Oku kuphikisa, baphikisa umthetho.

Ukhuselo

Abameli baphikisa ngelithi ukusetyenziswa ngokukhethayo yenye indlela yokukhusela amalungelo asisiseko ekuxhatshazweni kwelizwe ngaphandle kokubeka zonke iinkcukacha zobuchule zeBhili yamaLungelo koorhulumente bongingqi. Le mfundiso ithetha ukuba uburhulumente buyingqwalaselo ngokuvumela amazwe ukuba atshintshe, logama nje engaphulaphuli inkululeko engundoqo. Ngaphezu koko, inika inkqubo yokuba umGaqo-siseko ulungelelanise indlela abantu abaqonda ngayo “inkululeko elungelelanisiweyo” ukuguquka. Ukucotha, ukusetyenziswa kweNkuveza imbono yetyala ngokulandelana kwayo kukwavumela inkundla ukuba yakhe isiqu semizekelo ecacileyo ngamava.

Imiphumo Esebenzisekayo Kumthetho KaRhulumente

Emva [[NTL: 0] [[FLT: 1], oomasipala kufuneka baqinisekise ukuba imithetho yemipu yabo ihambelana noMphetho-mva wesibini njengoko kuchazwe ziinkundla zesizwe. Oku kukhokelela kwigandla lokuzinzisa. Abaninzi “banga-i-isysteu" abaphethe ulawulo bacelw'ucelwe njengomthetho ongangeni lungelo wokuphatha izixhobo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ithathe loo mngeniseko [FLT:] iNew York Rifle & Pristol Association. v[FLT][5][5][5]

Urhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni bakwajongene nenyaniso yokuba abanakuwuthintela uMphetho wesiBini ngenkcazelo yokuyila okanye ngemithwalo enzima. Iinkundla ziye zawisa imithetho efuna “unobangela olungileyo” ukuze zifumane imvume, imithetho yokuvala imikhosi eqhelekileyo yemipu, kunye nemithetho exhobisayo exhobileyo. Kwangaxeshanye, iinkundla ziye zaxhasa imimiselo efana nokuba nemipu exhotyiweyo, iimfuno zemvelaphi, kunye nokuvalwa komsebenzi kwiindawo ezichukumileyo (umz., izikolo nezakhiwo zikarhulumente).

Ikamva Lokungagqibeki Okukhethiweyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka ixhomekeke ekukhetheni icandelo eliziiminyaka ezingama-48 kwimicimbi yanamhlanje. Ramos v. Louisiana (2020), iNkundla iquka imfuneko yesiHlanu seSithandathu soHlaziyo loMgqibo wesigwebo setyala esidibeneyo, ukugqithisa imizekelo engaphezulu kweminyaka eyi-8 edluleyo. Esi sigqibo sasebenzisa uhlalutyo olungundoqo olufanayo olusetyenzisiweyo kumatyala angaphambili. Kwaye u-Timbs v. Indianaia [20]], iNkuqululo lwasebenzisa intlawulo olugqithisileyo lweSixwesa-Demplete-Grence kumazwe, siqinisekisa ukuba ukuquququlusa okuqhubekeka.

Ukukhetha icandelo kwakhona kungenza indima ekuveleni kwemiba yomgaqo-siseko, njengelungelo leNkundla yangaphambili lokuzimela, lokuzimela, kunye nelokuzenzela ngamanani. Nangona la malungelo engaveli kwiBill of Rights, amanye athathwe kwi “penumbras.” Inkundla iyakwazi ukuquka amalungelo anjalo kulungiselelo olufanayo lwe-'Udweliso ukuba agqalwa njengesiseko. Noko ke, utyekelo lwayo lweNkundla yakudala lungalinganisela ulwandiso, njengoko kuboniswe kwi-'FLT:0] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Nations [FLT:] 2022], eyathi yamkeleka kulawulo .[FLT] v.[FLTY][FLT][3] kwaye yakholelwa ukuba ukuqhomfa okungundoqo i-Creastname-scrivey-stion"

Isiphelo

[[NTLT:0] McDonald v. Chicago imi njengophawu olungekuphela nje kumalungelo eSigqibo sesibini kodwa kwakhona kwimfundiso ehlalayo yokubandakanya ngokukhetha. Ngokusebenzisa uHlaziyo lwesibini kumazwe kuMthetho we-Curtive Process Claus, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa indlela yokuchaza eyakhe yabumba umthetho-siseko waseMelika malunga nenkulungwane. Isigqibo siqinisekisa ukuba iNkunene iNkundla ivakalise ukubaluleka ingenakushiywa kwiimfuno zemithetho yomthetho-mthetho-siseko. Kwakhona yabonisa ukuba ukuqulungela okukhethiweyo kuhlala kungumthetho wesiseko wemithetho ephilayo, isixhobo esithambileyo, esinokwandiswayo kukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko lomthetho-siseko ngexesha lolungelenelo lwabiwo lolungelene.

Umendo osuka ku Gitlow ukuya McDonald ubonisa indlela iBhili yamaLungelo esuka kumkhosi olawulayo kuphela kwisiqinisekiso senkululeko ebalulekileyo kumntu ngamnye waseMelika, akukho nto ikhoyo ahlala kuyo. Njengoko iNkundla iqhubeka ijongena nocelomngeni olunolwazi oluncinane kuwethulelo lwamanani ukuya kumgangatho wokuzilawula.