Ukuqonda Ubunye Besizwe kuMkhosi

Imfundiso esisiseko sokhuseleko lombuso yimfundiso esisiseko ekhusela oorhulumente ekumangalelweni kwinkundla karhulumente okanye kwinkundla karhulumente ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isekelwe kumgaqo wamandulo wokuba “ukumkani akanako ukwenza okuphosakeleyo,” le mfundiso iguqukele ekubeni ngumda entsonkothileyo kumandla abemi bobuqu okufuna isicombululo sokugweba nxamnye nesizwe. Kumntu nabani na obandakanyekileyo kwityala lokumangalelwa kwesizwe. //666 ekwisigqeba, ummangalelwa, okanye igqwetha .) Ukuchaza iindidi ezimvo zokhuseleko lolawulo kuyimfuneko. Ithetha ukuba ityala alikho kusini na kodwa lizahlulele na inkundla enegunya neziphi na iindlela ezikhoyo.

Eli nqaku linikela uhlolo olubanzi lokhuseleko lolawulo lukarhulumente, isiseko salo sembali, ukusetyenziswa kwalo kwale mihla ngoMphetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine, iimfuno ezingundoqo, kunye nempembelelo yayo enkulu kwiimeko zamalungelo abantu, i-tort, kunye nemigaqo kawonke-wonke. Ekupheleni, abafundi baza kuqonda ingqwalasela ecwangcisiweyo yokuba abamangalelwa nabamangalelwa bakarhulumente kufuneka bahambe xa ukhuseleko lobungangamsha luthe lwancitshiswa.

Imvelaphi Yokungabikho Kolawulo Olungalungelelananga

Ingcamango yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni ngokusemthethweni wamaNgesi, apho isiBhulu sasigqalwa sikhusela isambatho kwiinkundla zaso. Le ngcamango yathunyelwa kumathanga aseMelika kwaye kamva yafakwa kwimithetho elawulayo yokuqala ye-United States. Abaquluneli, nokokuba, babewaphaphele amandla karhulumente angathintelwanga, nto leyo eyakhokelela kuxanduva phakathi kwemfuneko yokuphendula kukarhulumente kunye nomnqweno wokukhusela umgangatho kunye nemisebenzi yokonakalisa.

Chajolm v. Georgia [1793], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ivumele abemi bobucala ukuba bamangalelwe kwinkundla yenkundla yesizwe, babangele umva wequkuqelo olukhawulezileyo. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ama-United States ayesoyika ukuba oku kukwaya kuwachanabeka kwisuti engapheliyo kwaye aphulukane nemali. Impendulo yaba yekhawulezileyo: uhlaziyo lwezisombululo lwagunya leshumi elinesithandathu lagunya lagunya lesizwe kwisuti ezichasene namazwe okanye amazwe asemzini. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ukutolikwa kwetyala kwandisa ukukhuselwa kweminye ibhatyiso yemali.

IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesine: Isiseko somGaqo-siseko

IA111th Amendment ithi: “Amandla eeJaji eUnited States akazukuthathwa njengadlulisela nakuyiphi na imfanelo esemthethweni, eqaliswe okanye egwetywe nxamnye nenye i-United States yi-Citizens of the State, okanye yi-Citizens okanye iZihloko-lwazi zalo naliphi na Ilizwe Lasemzini.” Nangona umbhalo wayo ubonakala umxinwa, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayisayi kusoloko iwufundela umgaqo obanzi wokhuseleko lorhulumente olulawulayo oluthi lonke ulawulo lwetyala lorhulumente, ngaphandle kokuba usebenze.

Oku kuthintelwa akuphelelanga. INkundla iqaphele ukuba iimeko zingavuma ukuvumelana, iBhunga lingakuququzelela ukukhusela ukhuseleko phantsi kwamandla athile omgaqo-siseko, kwaye iisuti ezichasene nabaphathi-mikhosi bezonyango olungenaziphene zingaqhubeka phantsi kwemfundiso ye- ex icandeloe Young[[FLT: 1]. Ukuqonda ezi zinto zingaqhelekanga zibalulekile kumntu ovavanya ukufaneleka kobugxwayiba obuchasene norhulumente.

Amanani aphambili eNkundla Ephakamileyo

Amatyala amaninzi aphawula iziganeko ajikele le mfundiso. ku-[FLT] . Louisiana [1890], iNkundla yathi iMida yokuLawula yeshumi elinesibhozo ifanele imelane nesizwe sabemi bayo. USonominole Tribe yase Florida. [[FLT][FLT] [19696]] yaqinisekisa ukuba iNgqungquthela yesizwe ayinako-oyiseka kulawulo lwesizwe ngeCandelo I kuphela, njenge Commerciocle. Kutsha, [[FLT:] Zonke] v.[FLT][FLT] [FLD:] 2020]) ivile inkce yamandla ekwayokukhusela i-boogbody phantsi kwe-cobugconst Celsic. Ezi zigqibo ezi zimisela imo ezi meko ze-Gromac.

Indlela Ukungamanyani Kwesizwe Okuchaphazela Ngayo Ulwaphulo - mthetho Lwabemi

Isiko, ukukhusela ulawulo lombuso kusebenza njengomqobo onamandla. Xa iqela lobuqu limangalela urhulumente okanye omnye wabameli balo, urhulumente ungenza ngokukhawuleza ukuba arhoxe ngokusekelwe kwinkqubo yokuzikhusela ekuzimelanga. Ukuba ukhuseleko luyasebenza, inkundla ayinalo igunya elilawulayo elinobuphinelwa, yaye ityala limele licinywe kungakhathaliseki ukuba limele libe naziphi na iimfanelo.

Lo mgaqo awusebenzi kumonakalo wemali kuphela kodwa kwakhona kukukhululeka okulinganayo kwiimeko ezininzi. Noko ke, ukunqanda akubhekiseli kumagosa karhulumente kubuchule bawo bomntu ngamnye ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko, kwaye akuwafaki amasuti kuorhulumente basekuhlaleni (iiingingqi) okanye amaqela aphantsi kwezobupolitika, aphathwa ngokwahlukileyo phantsi ll v.

Impembelelo Kuzityholo Zokudlala

Ukwenziwa kwetyala kwamakhaya kudla ngokubangelwa kumonakalo wobuqu obangelwa ngabasebenzi bakarhulumente okanye ziimeko ezingakhuselekanga kwimpahla karhulumente. Ukhuseleko oluphezulu lungakuthintela oku ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente enze isenzo sokuzibanga. Amazwe amaninzi enze oko, ekwazi ukukhusela iindidi ezithile zobungakhathali, kodwa ngokufuthi eneentambo zokonzakalisa, iimfuno ezifutshane, kwaye ngaphandle kwemisebenzi ezenzekelayo. Umzekelo, uMthetho we-Calfonians Tort Inters ufuna ukuzibanga ukuba unikelwe kurhulumente kwisithuba seenyanga ezintandathu zomonakalo, kwaye iFederal Tort Inteers Act inika uMthetho ofana nowe-$ kwaye ngokufuthi ufumana ubuchule obuninzi obulungileyo bokuzichaza ngokuchasene ne-United States, kodwa hayi kumaphondo.

Abachaphazeli kufuneka bahlolisise ngenyameko isithinteli somthetho sorhulumente ngamnye ukuqinisekisa ukuba bayavumelana nazo zonke iimeko. Ukusilela ukwenza oko kuphumela ekubeni kufumaneke ngokupheleleyo.

Umthetho ogunyazisa amalungelo asekuhlaleni

ICuvil Rights Act ka-1871, eqinisekiswe njengo 42 U.S.C. 1983, ivumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe kunye namagosa asekuhlaleni ngenxa yokwaphulwa komGaqo-siseko worhulumente okanye amalungelo omthetho. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yacacisa ukuba ithetha ukuba “amadoda” awafaneleki phantsi kweCandelo 1983. Appel v. ISebe leMichigan lePolice [1999]) ikholelwa ukuba urhulumente, abameli bayo, kunye namagosa ayo asebenza kwimisebenzi yabo yasemthethweni ayiyo amajoni okuzikhusela kwilahleko ekhoyo phantsi kwecandelo eliphantsi konyaka ka199848.

Oku kuthetha ukuba kumatyala amalungelo asekuhlaleni, abalawuli abanakuyimangalela ngqo imeko yokukhululeka ngemali. Endaweni yoko, kufuneka bamangalele amagosa karhulumente kubuchule babo ngabanye, befuna umonakalo kwipokotho yegosa elisemthethweni (hayi ubuncwane bukarhulumente), okanye bafuna isiqabu esingeyongozi kumagosa asemthethweni phantsi Exte Young . Umahluko ubalulekile: iisuti zegosa-gosa zifanele ukugcinwna nemeko yelizwe kwaye zivalelwe, ngelixa iisuti zecathu zecathu zecawa nganye zivunyelwe kodwa zifuna ukuba zikwazi ukoyisa ukukhusela ukukhusela okufanelekileyo.

Izahlulelo Ezikhethekileyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu Lwelizwe

Ngeli xesha lobukhali, ukhuseleko lombuso olulawulayo alungomqobo opheleleyo. Iqela elimiselwe kakuhle elivumela ukusetyenziswa kwenqanawa.

1. Ukuvunywa okanye

Urhulumente angaluphazamisa ngokuphandle ukhuseleko lwakhe lobungangamsha ngomthetho okanye ngokuzinikela enkundleni. Amazwana amaninzi aye amisela izenzo ezibanzi zokuzithethelela ngokweendidi ezithile zezibhengezo, ngokufuthi eziphantsi koonobumba bemali neemfuno zolawulo. Umzekelo, iNkundla ye-New York Yomthetho Wokhuseleko lokonakaliswa kwempahla ethile kunye neengxelo zokonzakalisa komntu ngamnye, kodwa urhulumente kufuneka agwetyelwe kuphela kwiNkundla yeeNkundla yeeNjongo zeeNjongo zezothelo, kungekhona kwiinkundla zoluntu jikelele.

Iwaiver ingachazwa kwakhona xa urhulumente engena kwisivumelwano esiquka icandelo lomthetho okhethiweyo okanye isivumelwano sokukhulula, nangona iinkundla zingamathidala ukufumana umenzi ngaphandle kokuba sicacile kwaye sicacile.

Ukupheliswa kweBhunga

IBhunga lingasiphazamisa isigqibo solawulo lwesizwe ukuba lisebenza ngokukhupha amandla omgaqo-siseko agunyazisa ukunyuswa nokubonakaliswa kwenjongo ecacileyo yokwenza oko. USTINOME FUB isigqibo, noko ke, iBhunga elisikelwe umda wendlela yokulungisa phantsi kweSigqeba I. Ukukhutshwa kusebenza ngokuqhelekileyo phantsi kwamalungiselelo onyanzeliso oMhlambululo we 145 (Unyaka ka-56). Umzekelo, iSibonelo soMbutho noMgangatho we-mthetho we-zamayeza sikwamkelekelelwa ukuba silungiselelo elisebenzayo .[5][5]

Oku kubangela ukungaqiniseki ukucalucalulwa kwemisebenzi abaqeshi belizwe: Umthetho weSiqendu VII kunye namaMerika aneziphene nawo axhomekeke kumthetho wokunyanzeliswa koMthetho weSimemezelo weshumi elinesine, kwaye ukuphakanyiswa kwawo kweyokuthintelwa komzimba kuxhaswe kwimimandla emininzi. Amatyala kufuneka ahlole umthetho wangoku ngenxa yokuba iNkundla iyaqhubeka icombulula imida yamandla owiswayo.

3. [[UMTL:0] Ex Ex Young[[FTL:1] Imfundiso: Izihluzo ezichasene namagosa karhulumente

Enye yezona misebenzi zibalulekileyo yimfundiso esungulwe ku Ex e Young [08]. Ivumela amaqela azimeleyo ukuba amangalele amagosa karhulumente kubuchule bawo obusemthethweni bokongamela ukumiselwa kokufumana inkululeko yokuphelisa ukuqhubekeka komthetho wezwe. Intelekelelo kukuba umphathi wesizwe owenzela ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko ukhutshwe kwisolonga-mbuso kwaye angafakwa kwinkundla yequmrhu. Le mfundiso ibalulekile kwiimeko zamalungelo abantu ezifuna ukugatya ukuva ukungamela ukuthomalaliswa kwemithetho yezomthetho karhulumente, njengeGgerryman, iimeko zentolongo, okanye iimali zemali.

Okubalulekileyo, [[FT:0] Ex e Young ayivumeli iisuti ukukhulula okubuya umva kwemali, njengomonakalo womonakalo odlulileyo. Oko kungavalwa njengomthetho ongamkelekiyo kugcino-mali lwengingqi yengingqi yelizwe.

4. Isuti yeUnited States okanye

Ukhuseleko lokoyisa ukhuseleko lombuso ekumangalelweni ngurhulumente worhulumente okanye ngomnye urhulumente. IUnited States inokunyanzelisa umthetho karhulumente ngokuchasene nezwe, kwaye amaphondo angacombulula iimbambano zemida okanye ezinye iimpikiswano ngolawulo lokuqala kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo.

5. Ukuqhubekeka kokubhanki

IBhankruptic Claus yeNkqutyana inika iNkundla amandla angapheliyo ngenxa yokuwiswa kwamalungelo, yaye iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathi ukukhusela ukulawulwa kwemali akukuthinteli ukuphuma kwamatyala okanye ukugcinwa kwemiyalelo yokuwiswa kwemali kurhulumente. Oku kungabikho kuvumela abantu ukuba bafumane isiqabu kwiimfanelo zerhafu okanye kwamanye amatyala ngenxa yokuhlawulwa kwemali.

Imisebenzi Esebenzisekayo Yabaxhasi

Kubantu abafuna ukumangalela urhulumente welizwe, inyathelo lokuqala kukugqiba ukuba umahluko uyasebenza kusini na. Ingaba i-tort yeli phondo isebenza ngendlela yokuzikhusela kuhlobo oluthile lwento? Ingaba ukhona umthetho wesizwe osebenzayo njengesixhobo sokukhusela iprojekti? Ingaba imbonakalo ingafakwa njengesuti ngokuchasene negosa likarhulumente phantsi Ex iree Young?

Abameli kufuneka bagqale ityala elifanelekileyo. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokuba nabo bathinteli abangakumbi abakhuselayo kuneenkundla zikarhulumente. Ngokomzekelo, amanye amaphondo avumela iisuti kwiinkundla zawo ukuba zithethele ukuba zingavalwa kwinkundla yephondo phantsi koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesithoba. Noko ke, kwanalapho, urhulumente unokuthi aqinisekise ukuba inkundla zeli lizwe zimele zihlonele ukhuseleko lomthetho oqhelekileyo wokuba iinkundla zelizwe zifanele zihlonele.

Izenzo zodidi ezichasene namazwana zijongene nemiqobo eyongezelelekileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yeSebe soMthetho woLawulo loMsebenzi azilukhuseli ukhuseleko olulawulayo lukarhulumente, ngoko ke amazwe akanakunyanzelelwa kwinkundla yesizwe njengabamangalelwa beklasi.

ULawulo lweNtloko noMgaqo-nkqubo kaRhulumente: Ukulungelelanisa ukuNika iNgxelo yoXanduva noNyaka

Le mfundiso ibangela ulungelelwano oluluqilima. Kwelinye icala, ukhuseleko lwezokhuselo oluphezulu lwelizwe olukhusela ugcino-mali olusuka kwiinkundla ezingxwelerhisayo kwaye luqinisekisa ukuba ubuncwane obusikelwe umda abuphenjelelwanga kwityala. Kwakhona ithetha ngesidima kwinkqubo karhulumente. Kwelinye icala, isenokushiya abantu bengenayo ikhambi lomonakalo onzulu obangelwa ngurhulumente. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi le mfundiso ingumbandela ongekho mthethweni kwaye ngokungenakulinganiswa nanto ichaphazela abantu abachaphazelekayo abaxhomekeke kwiinkonzo zikarhulumente.

Imigudu yotshintsho kumgangatho karhulumente ikhokelele kwimiqathango ebanzi kwimimandla emininzi. Amanye amaphondo ngoku akanazo iintsimbi zomonakalo kwimiba yokusetyenziswa kwetort, ngoxa amanye aye akuphelisa ngokupheleleyo ukukhusela ukukhusela ukudleka kweentlobo ezithile zokonzakalisa, ezifana neengozi zemoto ezibandakanya abasebenzi bakarhulumente. Noko ke, akukho rhulumente oye waphazamisa ngokupheleleyo ukulondolozwa komzimba.

Kumgangatho wesizwe, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka iqinisa isiseko sokhuseleko lobungangamsha. Imeko, ingakumbi phantsi kweNkundla kaRoberts, ibikukukunciphisa amandla eNkqutyana ekukhuseleni ukukhuselwa nokunwenwa kwale mfundiso ngokwayo. Oku kwenza kube nzima ngakumbi ukuba oorhulumente bagcine amatyala ephendula kwinkundla yesebe.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwesizwe luhlala lungomnye wemiqobo ebalulekileyo ekuchaseni urhulumente karhulumente. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yakhe kumthetho oqhelekileyo wesiNgesi ukuya kuhlobo lwawo lwangoku oluphakathi koMphetho-mva weshumi elinesithoba kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo, imfundiso ikhusela iimeko ekumangalelweni ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Kodwa ikude kakhulu. ``waiser', ukuhlahlela, Exte Young sut, kunye nabanye-indlela ezinentsingiselo ze-partfiff abakwaziyo ukujika isijikelezi esisemthethweni.

Ukuqonda le mithetho asiyomfundo nje; yimfuneko esebenzisekayo kuye nabani na ocinga ngesenzo esisemthethweni ngokuchasene nequmrhu elithile. Enoba uthetha ngokuchasana kwamalungelo abantu, okanye imbambano yokusebenza, ubukho okanye ukungabikho kwendlela yokuzikhusela engokwasemthethweni kungagqiba lonke ikhondo letyala. Ngokukwazi imfundiso kunye nokungavumelani nayo, abaxhasi banokunceda ngakumbi abaxhasi babo nokuphuhlisa okusesikweni kwanasebusweni bezikhuseli ezingomeleleyo.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i Iqela lolwazi lomthetho eliqwalaselwe yi-odoli yokhuseleko oluphezulu , i- Inkonzo yophando lophando oluqhubekayo yeshumi elinesine , kunye nesishwankathelo se-[FLT:] i-Oyez se- inxenye encinane ye-Prom ukuchaza iinkcukacha.