Indlela Imithetho Etshintsha Ngayo: Inkqubo yokutshintsha umGaqo-siseko

Ulungiso lomgaqo-siseko zezona zenzo zibalulekileyo neziqhutywa ngabom nakweyiphi na inkqubo yomthetho. Umgaqo-siseko uyilelwe ukunyamezela, ukulungiselela uzinzo kunye nesiseko sokulawula, ukanti kufuneka uguquke ukuze ubonise ukutshintsha kwamaxabiso entlalo, izinto zobugcisa, kunye neemeko zezobupolitika. Le nkqubo yokulungisa yinkqubo yokhuseleko /aaconety, inkqubo eqinisekisa ukuba naluphi na utshintsho alwenziwe lula. Ngoxa ulungiso olukhethekileyo lweziko lomthetho-mthetho lwahluka-tshintshayo ngokwelizwe, inkoliso yemithetho-siseko yangoku iyabelana nolwakhiwo olunye: ingcedo, imvume yemithetho, i-ratting, kunye nokusebenza. Eli nqaku lihlola isigaba ngasinye ngobunzulu, ukuzoba imizekelo evela kumazwe angoMbindiya, kunye nezinye iintlanga ukubonakalisa indlela ezithathwe ngabomsombululo lwesizwe.

Isindululo Sokwenziwa Kohlaziyo

Inyathelo lokuqala elisesikweni ekulungiseni umgaqo-siseko sisicelo. Eli liqonga apho icebo lenguqu iziswa kwinkqubo esemthethweni. Ngokwesiqhelo, ngamaqumrhu athile kuphela anegunya lokucebisa iziphumo, kwaye iimfuno zibekwe phezulu ukunqanda imigudu engekho ngqiqweni okanye enzima. Ezi ndlela zimbini ziqheleke kakhulu zingentla ngequmrhu lomthetho okanye ngendibano ecwangciswe ngokukhethekileyo yemithetho-siseko.

ISindululo soMgaqo-siseko

Kumazwe amaninzi, indlu yowiso-mthetho yesizwe (isivumelwano okanye ingqungquthela) iphethe amandla ayintloko okucebisa ukubuyiselwa. Umzekelo, eUnited States, ukubuyiselwa kungacetyiswa ngevoti ezimbini ezithathu zendlu yabameli kunye neBhenate. Olu tshintsho lukhulu lufunekayo luqinisekisa ukuba naluphi na utshintsho olucetyisiweyo lunobububanzi bebhartiswano phambi kokuba ludlulele kwinqanaba elilandelayo. Ngokunjalo, eIndiya, umgaqo-siseko ungaziswa kwindlu nganye yePalamente kwaye kufuneka ludluliswe ngobuninzi bamalungu endlu nganye, ngokufanayo nangoninzi lwamalungu afunekayo angoo-3-3 abo bakhoyo kunye nokuvota.

Indlela yezicelo zowiso-mthetho yeyona ixhaphakileyo kuba isebenzisa idemokhrasi ekhoyo. Noko ke, umqobo ophezulu uthetha ukuba utshintsho oluninzi olucetyisiweyo aluze luphume kwiikomiti. Umzekelo, kwiBhunga lase-U.S., amawaka ezigqibo zokulungisa ziye zaveliswa ukususela ngowe-17.89, kodwa ngu 33 kuphela oye wavunywa lumelo olufunekayo lwezintlu ezimbini zesithathu saza sathunyelwa kumazwe ukuze kukhuthuzwe.

Isivumelwano somGaqo-siseko

Indlela yesibini, engasetyenziswa rhoqo yeso sindululo yindibano yezomGaqo-siseko. Le yiqumrhu labathunywa abahlanganisene ngokukhethekileyo ngenjongo yokulungisa. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika le ndlela inye phantsi kweGatya V: ekusetyenzisweni kweendlu zowiso-mthetho ezimbini ezithathu zesizwe, iBhunga kufuneka ibize indibano ukuba icebise ukulungiswa kwemigaqo. Le ndlela ayizange isetyenziswe kumgangatho karhulumente, kodwa ihlala iyinkqubo enamandla kwinkcazelo. Amazwe amaninzi asebenzisa iindibano zawo kwimiqathango yomgaqo-siseko.

Iindibano zomGaqo-siseko zisoloko zibonwa njengendlela yokugqitha kwindlu yowiso-mthetho evalelwe ngokungqongqo okanye yokucombulula imicimbi yenkqubo. Noko ke, zikwaphakamisa inkxalabo malunga "nendibano" enokuthi icebise utshintsho olungaphaya kobungakanani bantlandlolo. Ngenxa yolu loyiso, indlela yendibano ihlala ichazwa ngokubanzi kwiinkqubo ezininzi ze-oventine. Okuphawulekayo, ngowama-2023, umbutho phakathi kwamazwe ase-U.S. ukubiza indibano ngokulungelelaniswa koqingqo-mali okufunyenwe ingqalelo kodwa ayifikelelanga kumda.

Iimfuno eziPhakathi neziNqanda

Ngokungajongani nendlela yesicelo, i-majornal eninzi isoloko ifuneka. Iqhezu elithe ngqo liyahluka: ii-3 ezimbini ziqhelekile (U.S., iJamani, iJapan), kodwa amanye amazwe asebenzisa ii-fth ezintathu (iFransi kwiziphumo ezithile) okanye kwanesithathu-sine (olunye umgaqo-siseko wezwe e-U.S.). Le bar ephezulu iqinisekisa ukuba intengiso ibanzi, inkxaso ehlala ixesha elide kunokuba ibe yimveliso yento emxinwa okanye yexeshana.

Ukunconywa Yimithetho

Xa ulungiso lucetyiwe ngokusemthethweni, kufuneka luvunywe liqumrhu lowiso-mthetho (okanye iziqu) elityunjwe ngumgaqo-siseko. Eli nyathelo lahlukile kwiqonga lezicelo kuba libandakanya ingxoxo encinci kunye nevoti esemthethweni. Kwinkqubo ye-badamaral, omabini amagumbi kufuneka avumele umlinganiselo, ngamanye amaxesha ngamaqumrhu ahlukeneyo okanye kwiintlanganiso ezilandelelanayo.

Indima Yokusebenza Ngokubalaseleyo

Eyona mfuneko iqhelekileyo yovumo lwemithetho kukuvunywa kwemithetho. Umzekelo, umthetho osisiseko waseJamani ufuna amacala amabini anesithathu uninzi lwamalungu eBundestag kunye nee-3 ezimbini zoninzi lwevoti kwiBoundesrat. Oku kuphinda-phinda oku kuqinisekisa ukuba indlu esezantsi kunye nesiqu esikhoyo sombuso ziyavumelana. EUnited States, iimfuno ezimbini-isithathu kwindlu neNdlu yeendlu zisebenza ngokulinganayo. Ukuba igumbi ngalinye aliphumeleli ukudibana nomda, i-antenterrent iyafa.

Amanye amazwe amisela imiqobo eyongezelelekileyo. ESwitzerland, ukutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko karhulumente kufuneka kuvunywe ngamagumbi omabini eNdibano yeSizwe (iBhunga neBhunga laseStatskan) ngaphambi kokuba afakwe kwivoti ethandwayo. Kwamanye amazwe, imvume yowiso-mthetho kufuneka ifumaneke kabini kwiipalamente ezimbini ezilandelelanayo, kunye nonyulo phakathi, ukuqinisekisa ukuba uluntu luye lwafumana ithuba lokuvavanya le mbambano ngebhokisi yebhola.

Ingxoxo yoMthetho neNhlolo yeKomiti

Phambi kwevoti, ulungiso ludla ngokuqwalaselwa kakhulu yikomiti. Ngokomzekelo, kwiKhomishini yase-U.S. ingxubusho ecetywayo, i-accessiary Committee yeNdlu okanye yeNdlu yeeNdlu. Iindlebe zibanjwe, kuthatyathwe ubungqina obungononophelileyo, kwaye ikomiti ingaphawula ulwimi. Le nkqubo ingathabatha iiveki okanye iinyanga. Izilungisi-ziso zingatshintshwa ebudeni beli candelo, kodwa kuphela ukuba iinguqulelo zihambelana nenjongo yokuqala. Injongo kukuvelisa umbhalo ocacileyo, osemthethweni oza kumelana nokuhlolwa komthetho emva kokuhlaziywa.

Imizekelo yokuphumelela nokungaphumeleli koMthetho

I-Aumelt Rights Amendment (ERA) eUnited States yavunywa yiKhonklane ngowe-1971, eneziqu ezibini ezifunekayo kumagumbi omabini, kodwa ekugqibeleni ayizange ivunywe ngamaphondo aneleyo ngexesha elimisiweyo. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, uMphengululo wama-26 (ukuhlisa ixesha lokuvota ukuya ku-18 18) ngenqanawa yeBhunga ngo-1971 kwaye yavunywa kwisithuba nje seenyanga ezintathu. EIndiya, i-73 kunye ne-749th Rempumentations (iiiiiiiindawo eqhubana macala epala asekuhlaleni yadluliselwa emva kwengxoxo enkulu, ibonisa indlela ukuphumelela kwemvume ye-Rograviment xa kukho ukuvumelana kwezobupolitika.

Inkqubo yokwandiswa komjelo

Emva kokuvunywa kwemithetho, ulungiso lungena kwelona nyathelo lifuna intlawulo: ukwenziwa kwengcaciso. Le yinkqubo apho utshintsho olucetyiswayo luthunyelwa khona kumazwe okanye kwamanye amaqela asezantsi ukwenzela uvumo lokugqibela. Inyathelo lolwandiso liqinisekisa ukuba ukubuyiselwa kuvumelana kwabantu okanye abameli babo kumgangatho okufuphi neengca. Kwinkqubo zorhulumente, eli nyathelo libalulekile kuba ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko kusoloko kuchaphazela ulungelelwaniso lwamandla phakathi korhulumente osembindini namazwe.

Ukwandiswa yiMithetho kaRhulumente

Eyona ndlela iqhelekileyo yokwenza ingxubevange yemithetho-siseko yamaphondo okanye yamaphondo. EUnited States, iindlu zowiso-mthetho ezintathu kwezine zesizwe (38 kwezingama-50) kufuneka zivume ukupheliswa kwayo ukuze ibe yinxalenye yoMgaqo-siseko. Le nkqubo ingathatha iminyaka. Ezinye ii-oventia zingavota ngokukhawuleza, ngelinye ixesha ezinye zingalizisa okanye zingalaliswa. Umphetho wesi-72, osebenza nomvuzo wombutho wesivumelwano, othabathe iminyaka engaphezu kwama-200 ukuya kwi-ravice kodwa ekugqibeleni wavunywa ngo-192. EIndiya, i-rathi yokwenziwa kwe-rathi, ifuna ukuvunywa ngesiqingatha semithetho ethile yemithetho yowiso-mthetho echaphazela imicimbi karhulumente.

Ukuphucula Iindibano Zelizwe

Enye indlela kukwenza indibano ekhethekileyo. Oku kwasetyenziselwa ukuhlaziywa kwe-21 uMphetho-mda eUnited States, ekwakufuneka i-Allegated Prohibition. Iingqungquthela ezichaziweyo zendibano kunokuba zimisele imigaqo-siseko yokuyeka impembelelo yabaququzeleli bezomoya. Indlela yendibano ikhawuleze kodwa ixabisa kakhulu. Ayifane isetyenziswe kodwa ihlale ingukhetho lomgaqo-siseko. Amanye amazwe, anjenge-Australia, afuna ukuthelekisa imilinganiselo yomgaqo-siseko wemiqathango, eluhlobo lokwenza i-rattingsting olubandakanya ukuvota okuqhelekileyo.

Imida Yexesha Neemfuno

Amazwe amaninzi amisela imida yexesha lokugutyungelwa. EUnited States, iBhunga lingamisela ixesha elimiselweyo elimiselweyo elikwiminyaka esixhenxe (ukulungisa ngokulandelelanayo). Ukuba inani elifunekayo lemiqathango alivumi ngaphakathi kwe window, inguquko iyaphela. IERA inexesha elilixesha leminyaka esixhenxe (kamva elinyuselwe kwishumi) kodwa lasilela. Amanye amazwe, anjengeJamani, akanayo imida yexesha elicacileyo, kodwa uxinzelelo lwezobupolitika lokugqibezela ukusetyenziswa kwemali luphezulu.

Imizekelo Yemiqobo Engaphumelelanga

IERA isebenza njengomzekelo obalaseleyo wokulungisa okuthe kwanconywa ngokupheleleyo nokuvunywa ekugqibeleni kwawa kumazwe amathathu akwazeki ukuhlaziywa. Okunye ukurhoxa okungaphumelelanga kuquka iziGcibo zoMgaqo-nkqubo woLuntu (ongazange wagunyaziswa) kunye neSithili samaLungelo eColumbia Voting Amendment (esaphelelwa ngowe-1985 emva kwamazwe ali-16 kuphela eyagunyaziswayo). Oku kusilela kubonisa ukuba umqobo wokwahlula kusoloko kunzima ukucacisa.

Ukusetyenziswa

Xa inani elifunekayo lemibutho livumile ukupheliswa kwetyala, utshintsho luba semthethweni. Noko ke, le nkqubo ayipheleli apho. Utshintsho kufuneka luqinisekiswe ngokusemthethweni, ludityaniswe kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko, lunyanzeliswe ngamaqumrhu karhulumente afanelekileyo.

Ukuqinisekisa nokubhengeza

EUnited States, iArchivist yaseUnited States iqinisekisa ukuhlaziywa kwaye ikhupha isibhengezo. Utshintsho luba yinxalenye yomGaqo-siseko. Lo mbhalo usemthethweni uyahlaziywa ukuze uquke ulwimi olutsha. Umzekelo, xa uHlaziyo lwama-26 lwagunyaziswa ngowe-1971, iArchivist yaluqinisekisa ngeyure ezingephi, yaye uMongameli wakhawuleza wasayina esi sibhengezo. Kumazwe amaninzi, intloko karhulumente okanye inkundla esemthethweni ivakalisa ngokusemthethweni ukuba ukwamkela oku.

Ukucaciswa kweMigaqo-nkqubo

Emva kokumkelwa, iinkundla zidlala indima ephambili ekuchazeni ulungiso. Amalungiselelo amatsha asenokufuneka axolelwane nemithetho ekhoyo kunye neenkcazelo zomGaqo-siseko wangaphambili. Umzekelo, emva kokwenziwa kweSinyuselo se-14 ngo-1868, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ichithe amashumi eminyaka ichaza umlinganiselo "lokhuseleko olulinganayo" kunye "lokuqhubekeka kwenkqubo" ngokunjalo, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseIndiya itolike imfundiso esisiseko ukulinganisela amandla athile ePalamente okulungisa isiseko esithile somGaqo-siseko, kwana nobuchule obubalaseleyo.

Izicwangciso zomthetho kufuneka zimisele ukuphunyezwa komthetho. Ezinye izilungisi zizenzele ukubulala ngokutsha,/ezingekho mfuneko yokuqhubeka. Umzekelo, uLawulo lweziqingatha ezingama-22 (imida yexesha elidlulileyo) zikhusela umongameli wexesha elibini ukuba angaqhubeki kwakhona. Ezinye, njengoMmiselo wesi-16 (ukufumana irhafu), ngokulula iBhunga eligunyazisiweyo lokufaka irhafu yengeniso, kodwa ikhowudi yerhafu engundoqo kufuneka ibhalwe. Ummiselo uqinisekisa ukuba ukubuyiselwa kombhalo ocacileyo kuguqulelwa kulawulo olusebenzisekayo.

Iingxaki Nokugxekwa Kwenkqubo Yokulungiswa Komhlaba

Nangona le nkqubo yokulungisa ngabom ijolise ekukhuseleni ingqibelelo yomGaqo-siseko, ikwatsala ukugxekwa. Abanye bathi ingqongqo kakhulu, yenza utshintsho olufunekayo lungabi nakwenzeka. Abanye bathetha ngomngcipheko wokusebenzisa imali okanye indima yokuphembelela.

I-Rigings-bbles

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. uphakathi kowona unzima kakhulu ekupheliseni. Ukususela ngo 1789, iziphendu ezingama-77 kuphela eziye zagunyaziswa qha, kwaye ishumi lokuqala (iBhili yamaLungelo) ladluliswa phantse ngokukhawuleza. Ngokwahlukileyo, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe uguqulwa rhoqo. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba utshintsho lwenkqubo yequmrhu lorhulumente luye lwanzima kangangokuba luthintela naluphi na ulungiso, nokuba kukho inkxaso kawonke-wonke. Umzekelo, iingcebiso eziliqela zokuphelisa iElectoral Collegement okanye ukubeka imiqathango kwiBhunga yeBhunga ziye zagcinwa. Le mikhosi iqinile itshintsha imijelo etshintshayo, njengotoliko olulungele ukuchonga okanye imigaqo yezopolitiko, enokuba yedemokhrasi.

Amalungiselelo Anokubizwa Ngamagama

Eminye imiGaqo-siseko iqulathe "ukulungelelaniswa" imiqathango ``iikhabhara'' engenakutshintshwa kwanangenkqubo eqhelekileyo yokulungisa. UMthetho oMkhulu waseJamani odumileyo ukhusela isidima somntu kunye nesakhiwo sorhulumente kwi-mente. UmGaqo-siseko wase-Indiya, ngesiseko sesiseko semfundiso esunguliweyo emiselwe [iiii-Kavanada Bharati[ [77773], uthintela ukupheliswa okutshabalalisa ukubonakala kwayo okungundoqo, njengokungakhathalelwa kwehlabathi kunye nedemokhrasi. Ngoxa ezi zinto zikhusela amaxabiso asisiseko, zinokubonwa njengakuchasana nedemokhrasite kuba ziboza kwixesha elizayo zibopha izizukulwana ezithanda oko kudala.

Iingxaki Zezobupolitika Nezemali

Inkqubo yokulungisa ayigonywa kwizobupolitika ezigqwethekileyo. Kumazwe amaninzi, iimfuno eziphezulu zithetha ukuba iqela elincinane lingathintela ulungiso oluxhasiweyo ngokubanzi. Amaqela anomdla kunye nabaxhasi bangayiphembelela inkqubo, ingakumbi ngexesha lomgangatho wombuso. IERA ijongene nentshukumisa enzima evela kwabaxhasi nabachasi, kwaye imigudu yakutshanje yokuqhatha eVirginia nase Nevada yadityaniswa kwiimpikiswano zezobupolitika ngemiqathango.

Imbono Ethelekisayo: Indlela Amanye Amazwe Awulawula Ngayo UmGaqo-siseko Wawo

Xa ukhangela ngaphaya kweUnited States ufumanisa ukuba kukho iindlela ezahlukahlukeneyo zokulungisa izinto, nganye kuzo ibonisa imbali nemilinganiselo yelizwe eli.

IUnited States: Omeleleyo Noneengcwangu

Inkqubo ye-U.S. phantsi kweGatya-Nqanam V inguphawu lwezibhedlele lwengxaki. Imotheli ifuna ezimbini-ntathu zezindlu zomabini zeBhunga okanye indibano ebizwa zii-32 zeengingqi. Ulwakhiwo lufuna iintambo ezintathu ezine zendlu yowiso-mthetho okanye iindibano zikarhulumente. Isiphumo siskuba intengiso ezingama-33 kuphela zenziwa kwaye 27 zigunyaziswe kwiminyaka engaphezu kwama- 230. Le nkqubo imisela uzinzo oluphezulu kutshintsho, inyanzelela uvumelo olubanzi phambi kotshintsho. Indlela yombini i-U.S. imo ibinconywe zombini ngokuthintela utshintsho olungxamisekileyo kunye nokugxekwa kokungahambi kolawulo lwangoku.

EIndiya: Umzekelo Womgaqo - siseko Wokwenziwa Kwezimilo Ngokwahlukileyo

UmGaqo-siseko waseIndiya, umgaqo-siseko wehlabathi omde obhaliweyo, unika iindlela ezintathu zokulungisa zixhomekeke kumbandela. Utshintsho oluninzi lufuna uninzi olulula lwePalamente (umzobo 368) okanye uninzi olukhethekileyo (isithathu samalungu akhoyo kunye novota kunye nobuninzi obupheleleyo). Iziphengululo ezichaphazela amalungiselelo karhulumente zifuna ukudityaniswa ngesiqingatha semithetho yowiso-mthetho. Ukususela ngo-1950, i-Indiya igqithe kwikhulu elinamacala aguqukayo, ebonisa indlela ebhetyebileyo. Noko ke, imfundiso esisiseko yeNkukhosi Ephakamileyo ibekelwe phambili ibeke umda wotshintsho, ithintela naluphi na utshintsho oluza kukonakalisa iimpawu eziyimfuneko zomgaqo-siseko.

EJamani: Ukukhusela Imilinganiselo Yokuziphatha

UMthetho oBanzi weJamani (Grundesetz) ufuna isibini-sithathu sooninzi kubo bobabini iBoundestag kunye neBoundesrat ukulungisa nakuphi na ukutshintsha. Ngokudibanisa, inqaku lama-79 likwalela ngokucacileyo ukupheliswa okuchaphazela ulwahlulo lwemanyano kwiLänder, ukuthatha inxaxheba kweLänder kumthetho, okanye imigaqo yesidima somntu kunye nomthetho (iSiqendu 1 neSigqeba samashumi amabini). Eli nqaku 79 liqinisekisa ukuba amaxabiso athile angundoqo angenakususwa. Ukususela ngo-194949, iJamani iguqule uMthetho wayo osisiseko ngaphaya kwamaxesha angama-60, ilungele ukukhuthaza nokutshintsha kwezithethe zaseYurophu kunye nokutshintsha imigaqo yoluntu ngoxa ilondoloza isiseko sayo.

Ostreliya: Imfuno Yezonyango

Inkqubo yokulungisa ye-Australia phantsi kweCandelo 128 ifuna utshintsho olucetyiswayo ukuba ludluliswe zizo zombini izindlu zePalamente (okanye ngendlu enye ukuba enye iyala) kwaye yavunywa luninzi lwabavoti kwilizwe lonke, kunye noninzi lwabavoti kumazwe amaninzi (okune kwabathandathu). Olu ninzi luziqinisekisa zombini ukuba ziyathandwa kwaye zikwiqondo lombuso. Ukususela ngo1901, zisibhozo kuphela kwezingama-44 zicetyiswe ukuba ziphumelele, zibonisa inkqubo enzima kodwa ayinzima.

Isiphelo: Indlela Engagqibeleliyo Yotshintsho

Inkqubo yokulungisa umgaqo-siseko ayiyilwanga ukulungiselela isantya. Luhambo lwangabom, olunemigangatho emininzi olucoca iingcinga ezifutshane zepolitiki kwaye lufuna uphando oluphangaleleyo, oluhlalayo. Kwisicelo sokuqala esifuna inkxaso enkulu yenkxaso, ngemvume yemithetho kunye nolawulo lolwakhiwo, ukuzalisekisa okugqibekileyo kunye notoliko lomthetho, inyathelo ngalinye lidibanisa ulwaleko lophendlo kunye nolusemthethweni. Ngoxa abagxeki benokuthi bakhokelele kubunzima benkqubo njengomqobo wokulungisa, indlela yamabhongo iqinisekisa ukuba isiseko somthetho-siseko sithwala ubunzima obunzulu bolawulo-mgaqo-siseko. Abameli bamele nje utshintsho kumthetho, kodwa ukutshintsha okuzinziswa komsebenzi wesizwe. Njengoko abantu beqhubeka besenza inkqubela, ukurhoxa lokusebenza kwesiseko solawulo oluhlala luhleli ngokwaneleyo, ukulawula ngokwaneleyo.