Ukuqonda Ingozi Ephindwe Kabini: Ukhuseleko Olusisiseko

Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini lisiseko seenkqubo zobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho, owenzelwe ukuthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni amandla awo amakhulu ukubeka umntu engxengxelweni yezenzo ezifanayo. Obekwe kwiSigqibo sesihlanu soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States kwaye waqwalaselwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo ngaphaya kolawulo lomhlaba wonke, iingozi eziphindwe kabini zabamangalelwa ekuxhatshazweni, iindleko, kunye nokucinywa ngokweemvakalelo kwamatyala amaninzi ngenxa yesenzo esifanayo esityholwayo. Emongweni wayo, imfundiso ibeka ukuba xa umntu ekhululwe okanye egwetyiwe ngetyala elithile, kwiimeko ezithile, xa iqhubekeka ityala ngendlela ekwaya iphinde ithethwe ngezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezifanayo.

Olu khuselo lufeza iinjongo ezininzi. Lugcina izigqibo zobugqwirha, luqinisekisa ukuba amatyala aphela afikelela esiphelweni. Luthintela ukutshutshiswa ukuba "kubethwe okwesibini kwi-apile" emva kwesigqibo esingathandekiyo, ebekunokuthi ngenye indlela, aqhubeke ngokungakhathali okanye athathe izigqibo. Ikwabhekiselele kwityala lejaji okanye ibherin kwaye ikhusele abamangalelwa ukuba bohlwaye amaxesha amaninzi ukwenzela isenzo esinye. Kodwa, umthetho obonakala uthe ngqo uba ntsolo oluntsonkothileyo xa kumangalelwa uvela kwisiganeko esifanayo. Umbuzo obalulekileyo ngulo olubalulekileyo uthetha ukuba kusini na xa kunqamle umgca ongenakubekwa kwingozi?

Umahluko: Umahluko ofanayo. Ubalo olwahlukileyo

Isitshixo sokufumana ingozi ephindwe kabini sixhomekeke ekuqondeni oko kubumba ityala elifanayo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kwi stamburger v. United States (1932) yamisa uvavanyo olusezantsi: amatyala amabini awafani ukuba enye ifuna ubungqina benyaniso yokuba enye ayifuni. Phantsi kwalo "izinto ezinye" ukuvavanya, nokokuba ityala lisuka kwiseti enye yezibakala, logama ityala ngalinye liqulathe isiqalelo esisodwa esingafunwanga sinye, izityholo eziqhelekileyo okanye izigwebo ezininzi azingqubani na.

Umzekelo, qwalasela umqhubi onxilayo obangela ungquzulwano olubulalayo. Umqhubi angajongana netyala eliphenjelelwa yimpembelelo (DULT]), engakhange aqhubi umqhubi othe ngxi, , [[FLT]], [[FLT]], [iiiiiindlela yokuqhuba i-'FLT], [[[FLT]] engakhange ibonisweli). I-DUI ifuna ubungqina bokuba umqhubi utywala bungaphezulu komlinganiselo osemthethweni [[[FLTLT:5] [i] [iFLT], kwaye [[FLT] ufuna ukukhotyozeleka komntu oqhelekileyo, obungasetyenziswayo obuninzi, obungasetyenziswayokuqhank ’ ukuphaza kobuncinane.

Imeko Efanayo, Izinto Ezahlukileyo

[[NTL: 0] Uvavanyo olungangeni manzi lusetyenziswa kwi-parte-ault, hayi kwihambo engaphantsi. Ngalo ndlela, ukubethana ngenqindi enye ngexesha lolwano lwebhar kunokuthi kuxhase izityholo ze [ , [[FLT:]], [[FLT]] [4] ibhatatalthisi[[, [[FLT]]], ukuziphatha okungalungelelanayo , [[FLT], [[FLT] , [iiiiiinteg]], kunye neziqalelo ezicacileyo. Njengoko kuyimfuneko ukuchasana, ukungahambelani kwetyala, kuthengwa ngokwahlukeneyo, ukuququngelwa kwazo zonke iityala (onke iityala) (onke iityala).

Icala Elifanayo, Iilebhile Ezahlukileyo

Iingxaki zivela xa urhulumente ezama ukwahlula okungundoqo ukuba tyala elinye ngokungcenga okuninzi. Umzekelo, ukuba ummangalelwa uba into enye evenkileni, eyichaphaza ngazo zombini [[FLT: 0]] u-larceny[ kunye [FLT] nokuzeka [FLT] ngokungekho mthethweni ukuthatha [[FLT: 3] ngokungekho mthethweni ukuthatha [[FLT:]] xa zombini imimiselo igquma ihambo efanayo kwaye ifuna ukuba izinto ezifanayo zinokungqubana neenkcazelo eziphindwe kabini. Iinkundla zihlola iinkcazelo ze-stalty kunye neenjongo zomthetho zokuchaza ukuba ziluhlobo olubomvu olufanayo. Ukuba zikholweyo, iinkolelo ezininzi okanye ii-dipostriesties.

Umba onxulumeneyo ngu owenziwe ungangeni macala . Owesibini ulwaphulo-mthetho uquka umbalo oqukiweyo ngulowo oneziqalelo eziqulathelwe ngokupheleleyo ngaphakathi kwetyala elikhulu. Umzekelo, ukubulala kwesibini kudityaniswa kusisono esincinci esiqukwa kukubulala kokuqala-degree (ukuba i-degreee ifuna ucwangciso lokuqala, ngelixa isibini-degree engenziwanga). Ngaphantsi kwengozi ephindwe kabini, ummangalelwa akanakubekwa ityala lokuvela kwisenzo esinye. Noko ke, ukumangalelwa kunokuzisazo zombini izityholo njengeenkcazelo ezichaseneyo, kwaye abagwebi bangagwebayo kuphela xa befumana ipropati eyongezelelwe.

Iindidi Nemiqathango Ebandakanya Le mfundiso

Ngelixa uvavanyo lunika isakhiwo, umahluko omninzi ocacileyo uvumela ummangalelwa ukuba ajongene nezilingo ezininzi okanye isohlwayo kwihambo enye ephantsi. Ukuqonda oku kubaluleke kakhulu kwisiluleko sokuzikhusela kunye nabatshutshisi.

Imfundiso Engolongamo Olumanyeneyo

Enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo zibalulekileyo yimfundiso yolawulo lobungangamsha ephethe ezo zikhulu zokwahlukana (njengelizwe kunye norhulumente wesizwe, okanye amazwe amabini ahlukeneyo) ngamnye angammangalela umntu ngesenzo esinye ngaphandle kokwaphula ubungozi obuphindwe kabini. Isizathu sisithi umlawuli ngamnye unemithetho yakhe kunye nezilangazelelo zokukhusela. Umzekelo, amagosa abandakanyekileyo ekubetheni uKumkani uRodney angenatyala kwizityholo zikarhulumente kodwa kamva agwetyelwe kwinkundla yamatyala amalungelo amakhaya. Ngokufanayo, umntu ophanga ibhanki angabekwa icala ngurhulumente ngenxa yokuphanga nokuphanga kwebhanki, nangona urhulumente engomnye. Abagxeki abachasayo baphikisa lo moya wokuhlasela okuphindiweyo kodwa uhlala eqinile.

Ubungqina Obutsha Nemiqathango Engazange Ifumaneke Ngaphambili

Ubungozi obubini abuzenzekeli buzinze bubeke ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho olwahlukileyo xa kuvela ubungqina obutsha emva kokugwetywa kokuqala, ukuba isityholo esitsha asifumaneki ngexesha lokuvavanywa kokuqala. Umzekelo, ukuba ummangalelwa ukhululwe ekuhlaselweni kodwa kamva ubungqina bubonisa ukuba ixhoba lifile ngenxa yomonakalo onyanzelekileyo ngexesha lokuhlasela, umtshutshisi angazisa ummangali-tyala. Undoqo kukuba ityala elitsha kufuneka libe lulwaphulo-mthetho olwahlukileyo (awungalulo ulwahlulo lwezi olunye lwamasuntlulo). Noko ke, ukuba ubungqina obutsha buye bomeleza nje imeko yetyala lokuqala, ukubekwa kwakhona komthetho uthintelwa.

Amatyala Neehong Juries

Ityala eliphosakeleyo okanye inkundla yabachopheli-tyala exhotyisiweyo ayixhobiseli ukhuseleko oluphindiweyo kwiimeko ezininzi. Ukuba abachopheli betyala abanakufikelela kwisigqibo, ijaji ivakalisa ityala eliphosakeleyo, kwaye ityala lingaphinda liphinde lilungiswe. Isizathu sisithi ummangalelwa akakaqaliswa "edityanisiweyo okanye angabi natyala". Ngokufanayo, ukuba ityala eliphosakeleyo linikwe ityala eliyimfuneko (njengelungu lejaji elifileyo, ibharibhi, okanye isigulana), ukurhoxiswa kungaqala. Noko ke, ukuba ukumangalelwa okanye ukugweba okanye ukugweba kubangela ukuba ityala liphathwe kakubi ukuhlasela ummangali okanye ukuzuza inzuzo yeqhinga, ukuvavanywa okulandelayo kungaviswa.

Isalathisi somsebenzi wePhondo

Ingozi ephindwe kabini iyasebenza kuphela kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Umntu angamangalelwa ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yomonakalo ovela kwisiganeko esinye esiphumela ekubeni isaphuli-mthetho sikhululwe, kwaye ukumangalelwa kwamakhaya akuyophuli ityala eliphindwe kabini. Umzekelo, uSimpson wakhululwa ekubulaleni kodwa kamva wafunyanwa enetyala lokufa ngokuphosakeleyo kwityala loluntu. Umahluko uxhomekeke kwindlela engokwemvelo yokunyanga: isohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho ukuvalela. Ngaphezu koko, intlawulo (njengemvume yesakhono sokubulala okanye ukugxotha) abonwa njengolwaphulo-mthetho ngokuba netyala eliphindiweyo.

Imfundiso Edityanisiweyo Nezityholo Ezininzi

Xa ummangalelwa egwetywa ngetyala elininzi ngenxa yesenzo esinye solwaphulo-mthetho, iinkundla zingasebenzisa imfundiso ye- yokungena entweni encinci okanye afake ingqinise. Umzekelo, ukuba ummangalelwa ugwetyelwe ukubulawa kwabantu kunye nokumangalelwa okungaphantsi kwetyala, ukubulala okungangeni tyala kunganeno nokubulala okukhoyo ngaphantsi kwetyala, kwaye ummangalelwa akanako ukusohlwaywa ngazo zombini. Ngokufanayo, ukuba umtshutshisi ugwetyelwe iifayile kunye nezityholo eziphelwe phantsi kwetyala [FLT]] [FLT]].[mlt:]

Imisebenzi ecwangcisiweyo

Kumagqwetha akhuselayo, umngcipheko ophindwe kabini sisixhobo esinamandla esinokuphakanyiswa ngamanqanaba ahlukeneyo. Ukuhamba ususe ityala elisekelwe kwingozi ephindwe kabini phambi kokuvavanywa kungakhusela ukutshutshiswa kwesibini emva kweziphumo ezilungileyo. Xa ujongo lwetyala, icebiso lokhuseleko kufuneka lihlolisise ngenyameko ukuba nasiphi na sezo zityholo sisohlwayo esifanayo ngokwenene na ngaphantsi solwaphulo-mthetho oluncinci okanye nokuba ziqukiwe macala. Ukuba umxhasi sele evavanyiwe kwimithetho enye, isiluleko kufuneka sihlolisise enoba imfundiso ephi na ephi na ephindiweyo yolawulo luyasebenza okanye ukutshutshiswa korhulumente kusenokufumaneka.

Kumagqwetha, ukuqonda imida yomngcipheko ophindwe kabini kubalulekile ngokulinganayo. Ukucaphula ngaphezulu isenzo esinye solwaphulo-mthetho sibe ngamanani amaninzi anokukhokelela ekugxothweni okanye ekuguqukeni kwesibheno. Ngokuchaseneyo, ukusetyenziswa kwemfundiso yolawulo olubini kuvumela ukutshutshiswa okulungelelanisiweyo kwetyala eliphezulu apho urhulumente anokuthi ngenye indlela akhulule inyathelo lorhulumente (unika urhulumente wesizwe ulawulo oluzimeleyo).

Imizekelo Esebenzisekayo

Qwalasela imeko apho umqhubi ebetha umntu ohamba ngenyawo, aze asabe apho akhoyo. Umqhubi angajongana nolwaphulo-mthetho oluthi shit-funo-run (ukususa indawo), ] ngaphandle kokuqhuba [[ (umsebenzi oyingozi wesithuthi, [[FLT:]]] no-'4] ukukhubazeka komzimba []. Ngamnye ufuna ubungqina beziqalelo, ukuze zonke ezintathu zingeziswe. Kodwa ukuba kamva abaqhubi bafe, izityholo zinganyuka ukubulalana [FFFLD]]. [vFLT]].

Esinye isibonelelo: ummangalelwa ukhululwe ekuphangeni ngezixhobo kodwa kamva uvuma ulwaphulo-mthetho olunye kumajelo eendaba. Ngoxa eso sivumo sitsha singenakusetyenziswa ukuphinda silungise ukuphanga ngezixhobo, urhulumente angazama ukutyhola ummangalelwa nge ukuthatha intlawulo yempahla ebiweyo [ ukuba impahla izakufunyanwa kamva. Ukuba ityala lifuna ubungqina bokuba ummangalelwa wazi ukuba impahla ibiwe (ilungu elingafunwanga ekuphangeni), ityala lesibini lingasinda kwityala eliphindwe kabini.

Ingqikelelo Yamazwe Ngamazwe Ngokufa

Ngeli xesha indlela yolwazi olulungileyo, ezinye iinkqubo zomthetho ezininzi zineentlobo zazo zobungozi obuphindwe kabini. KuManyano eUnited Kingdom, umgaqo waziwa ngokuba u-autrefois consotion kunye ityala elivalelweyo] (ukubekwa kwangaphambili ityala nesiqinisekiso). Kwimbali, umthetho wesiNgesi waziwa njengomthetho onqabileyo emva kokugwetywa, kodwa ngo-20055, [[FLT:] i-Cristism Act 2] Act 2003 [ ukwazisa ulwahlulo olulinganiselweyo lwezenzo ezibi zobungozi (ngokubulala, ukudlwengula, ubugrozi obutsha] xa kuvela nobungqina obunamandla", kunye nemiyalelo yeNkugwebo lweNkugwebo oluphawu oluphawulweyo ngaphambili.

I-[NTLT:0] Ikhompathimente yamaLungelo neNkululeko inikela ukhuseleko lwengozi ephindiweyo phantsi kwecandelo 11(h), ethintela umntu ukuba angaphinde avavanywe emva kokugqibela ukuvalelwa okanye ukuqinisekiswa. Iinkundla zase-Canada zisebenzise uvavanyo olufanayo .[FLT]] nqawe i-barburger [ umgaqo okhusela iinkolelo ezininzi zedentilickia (imeko engalunganga) efanayo).

Amazwe angamalungu e-European Union, ngemithetho elandelwayo kunye nomthetho ovela kwiNkundla yeJaji ye-European Union, qaphela izikhonkwane ezikwi-irem umgaqo (ngesiLatini "kuphinda kabini kwi-"nye"). Lo mgaqo ugcina ityala lesibini kwelinye ilizwe le-EU emva komgwebo wokugqibela. Oku kukhuselwa ngaphaya kolawulo lwe-U.S.

Oko Sikufundayo Kumthetho Othelekisayo

Iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokufikelela zwenibanzi zibalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kolawulo olupheleleyo nobulungisa. Umahluko obini wolawulo lwase-U.S. uqhelekile kwaye usoloko ugxekwa ngokuvumela oorhulumente ukuba baphephe umoya wengozi ephindwe kabini. Ukungahambelani okusikelwe umda okusikelwe umda okubonisa ukukhula koluntu kwinkxalabo ephosakeleyo yokungaboni kakuhle kwiimeko eziphezulu ze-profile. Okwangoku, ii-EU's ezikwi-ibherifm zigxininisa imfuneko yokungaguquguquki kwisikhalazo esiphinda-ninzi. Abasebenzi bemithetho esemthethweni abasebenza ngaphaya kwemidabi kufuneka bazile oku kungqubanayo, ngokukodwa xa abacebisi betyala kwelinye ilizwe.

Uhlalutyo oluBanzi

Umgaqo ophindiweyo wobungozi awunampikiswano. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi uvavanyo olunqabileyo lungumatshini onzima kakhulu kwaye lungavumela ingqeqesho ezininzi eziphumelelayo zokwenza imo efanayo amaxesha amaninzi. Umzekelo, isenzo esinye sokurhwebelana ngeziyobisi sikhokelele ekumangaleleni, ukuphakamisa, ukurhwebela, kunye nozungu, nganye enokuthi iphumelele uvavanyo olunye kodwa iphumele kwisigwebo esibonakala singenamgatya ophantsi kokuziphatha okubi.

Ngokwahlukileyo, abanye baphikisa ngelithi ulwahlulelwano olubini lolawulo lungumngxuma othoba ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kutshanje iphinde iyiqinisekise imfundiso kwi Ggagg v. United States (2029]), kodwa isigqibo saphulwa, kwaye siyabiza ukuba ipheliswe. IJaji Ginsburg, ekuphikisaneni kwayo, iphikisa ukuba imfundiso "ithobe amaxabiso" kaVilipure Reopy Clauslee.

Enye indawo yengxoxo enenkxalabo [[FLT: 0] ithe xa ityala licinezelwe ngumgwebo osebenzayo nowokugqibela kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Asehe v. iSenson (1970), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela ukuba xa impikiswano yento epheleleyo igqitywe ngomgwebo osemthethweni nowokugqibela, loo mbamba ayinakuphinda ibekwe phakathi kwamaqela anye kwityala lexesha elizayo. Oku kuthetha ukuba ukuba ukuba ijaji evuna ityala ummangalelwa wophangi ngenxa yokuba ifumanise ukuba ummangalelwa akakho kwisiganeko, ityalaniswe kamva ngenxa yokukhusela okuqala. [FFFF]

Indima Yekhethe Nokukhathazwa

Kwanaxa umngcipheko wobugcisa ophindwe kabini ungawanyanzeli umtshutshisi, iinkundla zihlala zinolwazi lokuzikhupha izityholo ukuba ihambo karhulumente ikhohlakele okanye iyakhathaza. Inzame eziphindaphindwayo zokuzisa ityala elifanayo emva kokugwetywa, kwanaphantsi kwegama elahlukileyo, zingagxothwa ngumgwebi ogwebayo ukukhusela amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo yommangalelwa. Unyango alusoloko luzifaka engozini ezibini kodwa igunya elibanzi lenkundla ukunqanda ukuxhatshazwa kwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho.

Isiphelo: Indaleko Eqhubekayo Yengozi Ephindwe kabini

Ingozi ephindwe kabini ihlala iyindawo ecacileyo yomthetho, ilungelelanisa umgaqo osisiseko wokugqibela nxamnye nomdla woluntu ekubekeni abantu abanotyala ngenxa yehambo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Nangona umthetho jikelele ucacile, akukho mntu oza kubekwa engozini yetyala elifanayo. Isicelo sokumangalelwa kweso siganeko sinye silula. inqawe iburger [ isebenza njengesixhobo esingundoqo sobugcisayo, kodwa ngaphandle kwesobubungqina obubini, ukumangalelwa okutsha, ukuphosa, kunye nokumangalelwa koburhulumente kudala ukuntsonkoza okubalulekileyo. Kulwazi olusemthethweni, ukuqonda okupheleleyo komthetho nomthetho kuyimfuneko ukwenzela isigqibo sokusebenza kwesandi kunye nokungalungisiyo.

Nokuba kukhusela umxhasi omangalelwe ngetyala elininzi emva kwesiganeko esinye okanye ukumangalela ityala elinqumla izithuba ezininzi, imibuzo ephakanyiswa yimfuno ephindiweyo yengozi ephindiweyo, uhlalutyo olucacileyo. Njengoko iinkundla ziqhubeka zicombulula imfundiso/ngokukhethekileyo kumongo woburhulumente, zivela ubungqina obudibeneyo, kunye nentsebenziswano yezizwe ngezizwe. "ukuhlala ngokulandelelana kweziganeko" kusenokuba kudala, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwayo kuhlala kusekho.

[[UMTLL:0] kufundo oluqhubekayo, qwalasela ezi zixhobo zilandelayo:[[UMTL_1]

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