I-Bacted Process Claus yilungu lesiseko somGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, elivela kuMgaqo-siseko wesihlanu noweshumi elinesine. Lisebenza njengendlela ebalulekileyo yokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye nenkululeko yakhe, ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Eli binzana licaciswe lasetyenziswa kwiimeko ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni, ukubumba ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente nabemi bakhe. Eli nqaku linikela ukuvavanywa ngokuqhubekayo kwemvelaphi embali, iinkcazelo ezingundoqo, iimeko ezibonisa imbali, kunye neengxaki zamaxesha akhoyo engqonge uMgaqo-nkqubo ka-Claus.

Imbali Ethetha Ngenkqubo KaClaus

Ukusuka KwiMagna Carta Ukuya Kumthetho Oqhelekileyo WesiNgesi

Ingcamango yenkqubo efunekayo inemvelaphi enzulu kwimbali yomthetho yamaNgesi. IMagna Carta yowe-1215 yaseka ukuba "akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kuthi abanjwe okanye afakwe entolongweni, okanye ahlulwe amalungelo akhe okanye izinto zakhe, okanye agwetywe okanye agxothwe, okanye ahluthwe ukuma kwakhe nangayiphi na indlela, okanye sinyanzeleke ukuba amelane naye, okanye sithumele abanye ukuba benze njalo, ngaphandle kokuba ngomthetho osemthethweni wokulinganisa okanye ngomthetho welizwe. Lo mgaqo uthi umlawuli makalandele umthetho osunguliweyo ngaphambi kokuba enze isenzo somthetho wesingesingesingesingesiVulo. Kwiinkulungwane, isigama "umthetho" savela "ngenkqubo yomthetho," ubonakalisa ingcamango yokuba iinkqubo zomthetho zimele zilungelene, zilungelene, zilungelene, kwaye zimiswe ngokwemithetho.

Amarhamente Nexesha Lokufumana Igunya

Abenzi bobupoloni baseMerika bafumana ilifa eliburhulumente bamaNgesi. Umthetho-siseko wephondo kunye nomgaqo-siseko wangaphambili wawusoloko uquka iziqinisekiso zenkqubo efunekayo. Xa iNdibano yoMgaqo-siseko yadibana ngowe-1787, abaxhasi babeyiqonda kakuhle imfuneko yokukhusela abantu kwisenzo sikarhulumente esizimeleyo. UJames Madison, owayalela iBhili yamaLungelo, waquka i-Scted Procession Claus kuMmiselo weSigqibo-mthetho wesihlanu njengendlela yokuzinzisa urhulumente omtsha. Wadityaniswa ngo1791, ibinzana lafundeka: "Akukho mntu... uzakuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Injongo yayo yokuqala yayikuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente weSihlalo-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko solawulo alunakusebenza ngendlela engekho bulungisa ngokuchasene namnye umntu.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezigwebo Neengxubevange Zeshumi Elinane

Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, iBhunga loMbutho loQoqoshelwano loMbuso waMazwe lafuna ukunyusela imigaqo karhulumente. UMthetho woLawulo weSineth, owagunyaziswa ngo-1868, waquka eyawo i-Baccolas: "Naliphi na iLizwe liya kuhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho." Eli lungiselelo latshintsha ulawulo lwamaMelika ngokuvumela abantu ukuba bacel ’ umngeni imithetho nezenzo zorhulumente ezichasene nobulungisa obusisiseko. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa iMgaqo-siseko we- 145th Classionacle "irporate" eninzi yeBhili yamaLungelo lokukhusela amatyala nxamnye namagunya, inkqubo eyanwela ngokuphawulekayo ukufikelela kwabo kumthetho womthetho-rhulumente.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkqubo yemigaqo-siseko ibhekisela kwimfuneko efunekayo yomgaqo-siseko yokuba urhulumente alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo nezimiselwe phambi kokuba ahluthe nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ayikhathazeki ngokomthetho kodwa yindlela esetyenziswayo ukunyanzelisa. Iziqalelo ziquka isaziso esaneleyo, ithuba lokuviwa phambi komenzi wesigqibo sobundilele, nethuba elinentsingiselo lokunikela ubungqina nengxoxo.

Ukuphawula Nomathuba Okuviwa

Kwinkangeleko yayo esisiseko, inkqubo efunekayo, ifuna ukuba umntu afumane intsingiselo ecacileyo, efike ngexesha, kunye nesaziso esingqalileyo salo naluphi na ulawulo olunokudodobanisa amalungelo abo. Umzekelo, phambi kokuba urhulumente aphelise iingenelo zentlalo-ntle, kufuneka azise umamkeli wesenzo esicetyisiweyo nezizathu zaso. Ithuba lokuviwa kufuneka ukuba kwenzeke ngexesha elinenjongo nangendlela enentsingiselo. Kwimeko ezininzi, oku kubandakanya ilungelo lokuva ngomlomo, ilungelo lokubiza amangqina, kwaye ilungelo lokufumana umelo olusemthethweni. Inkundla ephakamileyo kwi Goldberg v. (1970) ikholelwa ukuba iprocc ifuna inkqubela ecacileyo yokuva isenokufumaneka phambi kokuba kurhoxiwe inzuzo, inokuthi iphume iziphumo ezinzulu.

Umenzi wesigqibo sobuzwilakhe noMphathi-mikhosi ongenamkhethe

Enye into ebalulekileyo yimfuno yommeli ongakhethi buso. Umenzi wesigqibo akanako ukubethelelwa kwisiphumo sobuqu okanye semali. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, eli lungelo libekwe kwisiqinisekiso seSithandathu soluHlanzo-mthetho "olungakhethi busobandlulwayo" kwimiba yoluntu kunye neyolawulo, lisebenza kubagwebi, amagosa aphulaphuli, namagosa amaqumrhu asemaqumrhu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ibethe imithetho karhulumente enika abagwebi intsonk ’ ityala lemali efuna ukugweba abamangalelwa, igxininisa into yokuba kwanembonakalo yekhethe ijongela uluntu ekujongeni ukuthembeka kwayo kwinkqubo yokugweba.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo yeNkqubo kumxholo okhethekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo yezomthetho iyahluka ngokomongo wokophula umthetho. Kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, kufuneka kubekwe amatyala amakhulu etyala elinzulu, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina, ukhuseleko ekunyanzelweni kocalulo-mthetho, kunye nokuphindwa kwetyala. Kwizindululo zoluntu, kufuneka isaziso sokumangalelwa, ithuba lokufaka iimpendulo, nelungelo lokuvavanya ityala elikhulu lejaji ngenxa yeengxelo ezithile. Kumthetho wejaji, amaqumrhu kufuneka anike isaziso nokugqabaza iinkqubo zomthetho kunye nokuphendula ngokusesikweni kwamazwi phambi kokuphelisa imvume okanye izigwebo eziphezulu. Ukulungele ukujika kwenkqubo yeprocedbex kuvumela iinkundla ukuba zivavanye inzala yangasese kwisibo, umngcipheko sokunganyaniseki, kunye nomdla solawulo oluphosakeleyo, kunye nomdla worhulumente.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko yeyokuphikisana kakhulu nokufikelela kude. Imi ngelithi amalungelo athile asisiseko asekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nezithethe zohlanga kangangokuba akanako ukuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente, kungakhathaliseki iinkqubo ezisetyenzisiweyo. Ngamanye amazwi, nokuba urhulumente unika isaziso kunye nokuva, asenokuyichasa inkqubo efunekayo ukuba aphazamisana nenkululeko ekhuselekileyo okanye inzala yempahla ngaphandle kobulungisa obunyanzelisayo.

Imvelaphi Nophuhliso

Imfundiso yaqala ukuvela ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19. Allgeyer v. Louisiana (1897]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho karhulumente owathintela izivumelwano ze-inshorensi yombuso, ibambe ukuba "imvume" ekhuselwe yindawo yoHlaziyo ye 1450 yokuHlaziywa yaquka inkululeko yokungena kwizivumelwano ezisemthethweni. Lo mgca wokuqiqaqayo kwincopho Lochner v. [[FLT:] [3] [190], apho iNkuNkundla ithelela umthetho welizwe owenziwe umgangatho ophezulu njengomthetho wababhaki wesivumelwano. Ixesha lokusebenza, elaqhubeka lide lade lale libona imimiselo emininzi yezoqoqosho. [5]

Ukuvuselelwa Nokwanda Kwamalungelo Asisiseko

Ukususela ngo-1960, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavuselelwa inkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela ukuzimela kwangasese namalungelo obuqu. Griswold v. Connecticut[ [1965], iNkundla yawisa umthetho othintela ukusetyenziswa kokuthintela ukukhawula okukhoyo kwabantu abatshatileyo, ifumana ukuba i-Sect Proced Claus ekhusela ummandla wemfihlo kwiziqinisekiso ezininzi zomgaqo-siseko. Le ngqiqo yanyuswa kunyuso [FLT]. [FLT][5][5].[4] [4] Izigqibo ezithekileyo zomtshato, izigqibo ezithiweyo [eziphendundundu:] [[3] [evolsev] kunye nezigqibo zobucala] [eceleleka ,[3]

Ukuxokisana Nokugxekwa

I-Credists Claus yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo, hayi ukwenza utshintsho olupheleleyo. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi le mfundiso ivumela abagwebi abangakhethwanga ukuba banyanzelise iinkqubo zabo siqu phantsi kotoliko lomgaqo-siseko. IBhunga loqobo limi ngelithi i-Active Process Claus yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo, hayi ukwenza isigqibo esingesokukhutshelwa. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo i-Dobs v.Jack's's uQumrhu Lezempilo lwamabhinqa [202], olulawulayo lodwa nguRoe noCase, lubonisa ukurhoxiswa kwenkqubo efunekayo ekuphumeni isisu. IJajini lenkqubo i-Alto iqiniswe ngokungenakuqinisekiswa, ithetha ngokusetyenziswa kwembali ephambili, i-Alto ithetha ngokusetyenziswa kwengxelo engundoqo, ikhuselwa ngokusetyenziswa ngumthetho, njengoko kusetyenziswa nangaqiniseka ngokusetyenziswa ngumthetho, ukusetyenziswa kokuzisola komthetho, njengoko kusetyenziswa kokungaqiniseka,

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

IThe The The ST Ecroment Claus ingunobangela wezigqibo ezininzi ezibalaseleyo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Washington v. Glucksberg (1997)

[[NTLT:0] uGlucksberg v. Glucksberg, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathetha ukuba iNkqubo kaClaus ikhusela ilungelo lokunceda ukuzibulala. INkundla yaxhasa umthetho wephondo laseWashington othintela ukuzibulala kwagqirha oye wancedwa, ibambe ukuba olu phawu lungakonwabi "kugqibeleleyo kwimbali nesithethe. Isigqibo saseka uvavanyo lwecandelo amabini lwenkqubo efunekayo: okokuqala, esekunene kufuneka ikhuliswe ngokunzulu kwimbali; okwesibini, kufuneka kuchazwe kakuhle. Olu "Glucksberg luye lwasetyenziswa ekugqibeleni amalungelo angakhutshwanga.

Intambo--ebroyi (engowe1903) kunye neDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health (2022)

[[NTLT: 0] Roe v. yakholelwa ukuba iNkqubo eBalwayo u-Celalas ikhusela isigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. INkundla yamkela isiseko esilungeleleneyo sokulinganisela imfuno yesiqu sebhinqa ngokulinganisa imfuno yesiqu sobuqu nemfuno yombuso kubomi bukamama. Esi sigqibo saqinisekiswa kwi [[[FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT]] u-'aty [[FLT] v.[FLT] [FLT] [3] [1992], eyafaka indawo yesakhiwo esincinane nge "```````irighteroses'''''''' noxa kuthengwa kuxandukubelo lommiselo. Noko ke, kumgangatho obalulekileyo womthetho othe wakwayi-Don'.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

[[Nkundla:0] Obergefell v. Hodges, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi, ukuHlaziya kweshumi elinesine kufuna onke amazwe ukuba anike imvume nokuqaphela imishado efanayo. INkundla yasebenzisa i-Cemeters kunye ne-Secutement Claussme, ifumana ukuba ilungelo lokutshata liyinkululeko engundoqo ekwandiseni izibini ezifanayo ezingokwasemgangeni. UJaji Kennedy ’ uluvo loninzi lugxininisa isidima sobuqu nesomkhethelo omiselwe kwisigqibo somtshato. Oberge Fall umele uphawu oluphezulu lwamanzi aphezulu ka-Cetans.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

[[NTLT: 0] Griswold v.Connecticut yawisa umthetho karhulumente owawisa umthetho wokusetyenziswa kwezokuthintela ukukhawula izibini ezitshatileyo. Nangona iNkundla ingaxhomekekanga ngokucacileyo kwicandelo elinye, yakholelwa ukuba amalungiselelo ahlukeneyo eBill of Rights adala "penumbras" ekhusela ilungelo lokufihla isiqu somtshato. Iimeko kamva, eziquka [[FLT: 2]] iEenstadt kunye RO, zikhuthaza ilungelo elipheleleyo lemfihlo ekunene kwi-Clascsc. Groldred isoloko incoxwe ngenkqubo yaleast.

IMatthessis v. Eldridge (1976)

Mathenus v. IEldridge yasungula uvavanyo olulungeleleneyo lwenkqubo efunekayo. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba xa igqiba ukuba yeyiphi inkqubo efanelekileyo, iinkundla kufuneka ziqwalasele iinkalo ezintathu: umdla wobuqu ochaphazelekayo, ubungozi bokungafunwa ngempazamo phantsi kwenkqubo yangoku kunye nexabiso elilindelekileyo lemiqathango eyongezelelweyo, kunye nomdla karhulumente, kuquka imicimbi engokwemali kunye nemithwalo yolawulo. Olu vavanyo luhlala lungumgangatho wokuvavanyanisa inkqubo efanelekileyo yolawulo nolawulo noluntu.

Ekuphumeleleni kwakhona (1970)

Kwi-winship yakholelwa ukuba kwingxoxo zobunjubaqa bolutsha, umgangatho wobungqina kufuneka ube "ngaphandle kobunyani obusengqiqweni," ngokufanayo nakumatyala amakhulu olwaphulo-mthetho. INkundla yaqiqa ukuba iNkqubo elindelekileyo ka-Claus ifuna ukuba kungabikho mntu uvakaliswa njengongenabugqeba ngaphandle kokuqinisekiswa kwesenzo esiphantsi somgangatho ophezulu. Esi sigqibo sandisa ukhuseleko lobuntwana kwaye saqinisa umgaqo wokuba urhulumente umele uhlangabezane noxanduva olunzima phambi kokuba ahluthe nabani na wenkululeko.

Impembelelo Yokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho

I-Bat Process Claus yenze inkqubo yobulungisa baseMelika yokwaphula umthetho. Iqinisekisa ukukhusela okungundoqo kwabamangalelwa: ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nangokuba lityala likawonke-wonke lingumchopheli-wonke, ilungelo lokululekwa ngokusemthethweni, ukukhuselwa ekuzichaseni, nelungelo lokuthethana namangqina. Ezi zikhuseli azingomthetho nje owesithethe; ziyimfuneko ukuthintela ukuchanabeka okuphosakeleyo nokuqinisekisa ukuba amandla karhulumente asebenza ngokulinganayo.

Ukufanelekela Icebiso

INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Gideon v. Wainwright (63) yakholelwa ukuba i-Curve Processom Claus ifuna amatyala asemthethweni ukunikezela ngesiluleko esisemthethweni kubamangalelwa abagwetyiweyo kwiimeko ezingalunganga. Kamva izigqibo zanwebela eli lungelo kubagwebi apho kunokwenzeka khona. Ngaphandle koncedo olunempumelelo lwesiluleko, amanye amalungelo e-procedism ayaphelelwa. Ilungelo lokucebisa lelinye lawona mithetho ibalulekileyo ye-Clausse.

Ukhuseleko ekuzichaseni kunye nobungqina obungathembekanga

Ilungelo loMmiselo wesihlanu nxamnye nokuzichasa ngokwawo phambi kokuzincina kwetyala liqukiwe nxamnye namazwana angaphaya kweNkqubo elindelekileyo ka-Claus. imanda v. Arizona (1966), iNkundla yacela amapolisa ukuba azise amatyala awo phambi kokuncinwa kwetyala. Inkqubo elindelekileyo ikwakuthintela ukusetyenziswa kokuvunywa kwentekoza izono nokungathembekanga. [[FLT:]] Jackson v. Denno (1964), iNkundla yabanjwa yinkundla ukuba umahluleli, hayi umgwebi wetyala, kufuneka amisele ukusetyenziswa kwe-ontath-oka.

Impembelelo Ekukhululweni Kwabemi

Ngaphandle kobulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho, i-Theath Procession Clause ikhusela uninzi lwenkululeko yabemi. Iye yacelwa ukuba ikhusele inkululeko yokuthetha neyonqulo, amalungelo obuzali, nelungelo lokuhamba. Eli binzana likwanikela isiseko sokukhusela inkululeko yezoqoqosho, nangona oko kuye kwaphela ukususela kwiminyaka yee-1930. Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, eli binzana liye lasetyenziswa ukucel ’ umngeni izenzo zikarhulumente eziphazamisa inkululeko yobuqu, njengemiqathango yokuthintela ukuthintela, ihambo esondeleleneyo, kunye nomtshato.

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Namalungelo Okungabikho Kwam

Eyona ndawo ididaneyo nenempembelelo yenkqubo encinci efunekayo ibandakanya ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa. Nangona umGaqo-siseko ungakhankanyi ngokukhululekileyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba uMsebenzi uClaus ukhusela izigqibo zobuqu malunga nomtshato, ukuzala, ukuthintela, ulwalamano lwentsapho, kunye nokuzala komntwana. Pierce v. USociety of Ofester [1925] kunye [FLT] Meyer v. Nebras [1923], iNkuwisela imithetho ephazamisa ulawulo lwabazali kwimfundo. Ezi zigqibo zangaphambili zavelwa kwilungelo lokuziqumkelo zobuqu eziqalwayo kwiGriswoldord nasemva kwexesha.

Iingxaki Zangoku

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

Ukuhambela phambili okukhawulezileyo kobugcisa kuphakamisa imibuzo emitsha efunekayo. Iinkqubo zorhulumente zokuhlola. Umzekelo, ukusebenzisa imigaqo-mithetho esetyenziswa ngoomatshini bokusebenza nokugweba, nokuqokelelwa kwemiba yogcino-lwazi yobuqu evavanya iingcamango ezingokwesithethe zobuqu kunye nenkqubo elungileyo. Iinkundla ziyangqubana nokuba ngaba uMphengululo wesine kunye nemigaqo efunekayo ikhusela abantu ngokufanelekileyo kwiminyaka yobudala beminyaka yamanani. Umzekelo, inkundla ingayalela umkrokreqi ukuba anikezele ikhowudi yokuvula ifowuni ngaphandle kokwaphula ilungelo elichasene nokuzimela ngokwayo? Ingaba ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zomsebenzi wobupolishi kuchasene nenkqubo ezithenjiweyo kuya kufuna ukulungele ukulinganiswa kokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke namalungelo abantu?

Imfundiso yokwalukelwa kwezinto.

Ingxoxo ngenkqubo encinci efunekayo yokuzithethelela ikwayingxoxo malunga nokutyhilwa komGaqo-siseko. Abaxhasi bembali baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi kufuneka banyanzelise amalungelo asekelwe ngokwemibhalo okanye ngokwembali. Abalawuli bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo baphikisa ukuba ulwimi olubanzi lwe-UTrast Claus belucelwe ukuguqula ibutho labantu. Abaninzi bale Nkundla iPrountainberg abathe tye baluthandabuza ukwenziwa kwenkqubo encinci efunekayo, njengoko kubonwa kwiDobbs. Noko ke, imfundiso ihlala iqinile kwimimandla emininzi yomthetho, kwaye ukushiywa ngokupheleleyo kubonakala kungenakwenzeka. Ikamva liya kuqhubeka libona ukuphuculwa kovavanyo lwe-Glucksberg kunye nemidanga entsha.

Imibutho Yasekuhlaleni Notshintsho Olungokwasemthethweni

Imibutho yoluntu iye yaqhubela phambili kwinkqubo efanelekileyo. Umbutho wamalungelo abantu woo-1960 waxhomekeke kwinkqubo efanelekileyo yokucel ’ umngeni imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. I-LGBTQ+ + umbutho wamalungelo oluntu osetyenziswa ngokufihlakeleyo ukukhusela ukulingana komtshato. Namhlanje, imigaqo-nkqubo yokulawula uhlanga kunye namalungelo ezikhubazeko iyaqhubeka icela ingcebiso elifanelekileyo lokuvavanya ukuziphatha okubi kwamapolisa, uqheliso lokuvalela, nokufikelela kwindawo yoluntu.

Isiphelo

I-Baw Process Claus ime njengenye yeemeko ezinamandla nezithambileyo kuMgaqo-siseko. Iimvelaphi zayo embalini eMagna Carta, iintlobo zayo ezibini zokhuseleko lweprocedtural kunye nolwezo oluphantsi, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwayo kwiimeko ezininzi kubonisa indima yayo engundoqo kulawulo lwamaMerika. Ngoxa umlinganiselo wemiqathango nentsingiselo yentetho iqhubeka ikhuphiswano, isithembiso sayo esingundoqo i— ukuba urhulumente kufuneka enze ngokuchanekileyo nangentlonelo inkululeko esisiseko — ihlala ibalulekile kumthetho. Njengoko ibutho labantu lijongana nocelomngeni olutsha kubugcisa, izithethe eziguqukayo, kunye neengcamango ezingomthetho, iMicimbi yeMicimbi yeNkqubo engundoqo, ngokungathandabuzekiyo, i-Clauss iza kuqhubeka nokukhusela isigwebo kubo bonke.