Indlela Ekwakhiwa Ngayo INkundla EUnited States

Inkqubo yenkundla isebenza njengesiseko somthetho phantse kuwo onke amasebe edemokhrasi yale mihla. Lilungiselelo apho imithetho ichazwa, kulungiswa khona iimpikiswano, kwaye kunikelwa ubulungisa ngendlela engaguquguqukiyo nengakhethiyo. EUnited States, ijudiary isebenza njengesebe elizimeleyo likarhulumente, elahlulwe kumasebe owiso-mthetho nalawulayo, isakhiwo esisekelwe kumgaqo wezonyango lwedemokhrasi. Le nkqubo yenkundla ayiyonto enye, ingumatshini omnye kodwa isebenza ngendlela epheleleyo kodwa isakhiwo esineemigangatho emininzi, ngasinye sineembopheleleko ezicacisiweyo. Ukuqonda indlela ezi miphakamiso ezisebenza ngayo zize nabani na ofunda umthetho, iziko-rhulumente, okanye inkqubo kawonke. Eli nqaku linikela uhlolo lomgaqo wendlela eyahlukeneyo ngaphakathi kwinkundla yenkundla yezomthetho, kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo, kwiinkundla zenkundla, nakwiinkundla zezomthetho ezilawulayongalathisa imicimbi, ngokweenkundla zezomthetho.

Injongo yeNkqutyana yeNkundla eManyeneyo

Kutheni le nto kukho imigangatho emininzi yeenkundla? Impendulo ixhomekeke kwimfuneko yocoselelo, okusesikweni, kunye nokungaguquguquki kulawulo lwezobulungisa. Iinkundla zamatyala zenzelwe ukucombulula iimbambano eziyinyaniso nokusebenzisa umthetho kwiimeko ezithile zetyala. Noko ke, kwanelona tyala libalulekileyo lingaphumela kwiimpazamo ezisemthethweni, ukuvunywa kobungqina, indlela eyanikwa ngayo imiyalelo yejaji, okanye indlela eyatolikwa ngayo. Iinkundla zetyala zikho ukusombulula iimpazamo. Ngaphandle kwe-appelllate fest, umgwebi omnye okanye umgwebi omnye unokuba negama lokugqibela, ukwandisa ubungozi beziphumo ezingekho bulungisa.

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo, kumgangatho ophakamileyo, zisebenza umsebenzi obanzi: ziqinisekisa ukuba umthetho uchazwa ngokulinganayo ngaphaya kolawulo lonke. Ngaphandle kwenkundla yezonyuso zokugqibela, iinkundla ezahlukeneyo zezaphula-mthetho zingakhupha imithetho engqubanayo kumbuzo omnye osemthethweni, zidala isiphithiphithi nokungaqiniseki kubemi, amashishini, kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente. Ngoko ke isakhiwo esisigqubuthelo asiko ukusetyenziswa kwe-Reutaucratic transpantiance kodwa inkqubo ecelwe ngenyameko yee-checks kunye neemali ezikwicandelo lejadiary ngokwalo.

Kwakhona esi sakhiwo sikhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Iqela eliphulukana netyala linelungelo lokuba inkundla ephakamileyo ihlole iinkundla ezichaphazelekayo zezobugqwetha. Yaye kwiimeko ezibandakanya imibuzo engokomGaqo-siseko, inkundla ephakamileyo inikela inkxaso yokugqibela ekuphathweni ngurhulumente.

Amanyathelo Amathathu Ayintloko Eenkundla

Ngeli xesha ukubizwa kwamagama okuchanileyo kunye nokulungelelwaniswa kweenkundla kwahluka ngokwemeko naphakathi kwenkqubo zikarhulumente neyorhulumente, isiseko sobume singqinelana ngokuphawulekayo. Iinkqubo zenkundla ezininzi eUnited States zilungelelaniswe zaba ziithala ezintathu ezingundoqo: iinkundla ezivavanyayo, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye nenkundla yeendawo zokukhetha zokugqibela, ngokuqhelekileyo ezibizwa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo.

Iinkundla Zetyala: Apho Kuqala Khona Amatyala

Iinkundla zetyala zingunobangela wokubekwa kwetyala phantse kuzo zonke iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni. Ezi ziinkundla apho kugcinwa khona amatyala, kunikelwa ubungqina, kufikelelwa amangqina, kunye nezigwebo. Maxa wambi iinkundla zamatyala zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zenkundla ezilawulayo ngenxa yokuba zinegunya lokuva ityala okokuqala. Umsebenzi wazo oyintloko kukuchonga izibakala zetyala nokusebenzisa umthetho onxulumene nalo kwezo meko.

Iinkundla zenkundla zilapho kudlalelwa khona inkundla yenkundla. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, amatyala anikela ubungqina bokungqina ityala lommangalelwa ngaphandle kokuthandabuza, ngelinye ixesha ingxubusho engqina ubungqina nokuzinikela eyayo. Kwityala loluntu, ummangaleli makalingqine ityala lakhe ngokulibeka phambi kobungqina. AmaJuries angabandakanyeka kuzo zombini iindidi zamatyala, nangona amatyala amaninzi egqitywe ngumgwebi kuphela koko kubizwa ngokuba kukuwiswa kwetyala lebhele.

Umsebenzi weenkundla zamatyala uyinyaniso kwaye ungqale. Ngaba ummangalelwa uqhuba isibane esibomvu? Ngaba isivumelwano sasayinwa phantsi kweminxeba? Ngaba amapolisa ayenaso isizathu sokuphengulula? Ezi ziintlobo zemibuzo eziphendulwayo. Abamisela mizekelo ebanzi engokwasemthethweni; izigqibo zabo zisebenza kumaqela akwityala kwaye ngokuqhelekileyo awabophi ezinye iinkundla.

Iintlobo zeenkundla zokuvavanya kwinkqubo yeRhulumente

Iinkqubo zenkundla yephondo zintsonkothile yaye zisoloko ziquka iinkundla eziliqela zamatyala akhethekileyo.

  • Jikelele iiNkundla zeJuriscion: Ezi ziinkundla ezingundoqo zamatyala kumaphondo amaninzi. Zisingatha amatyala anzulu olwaphulo-mthetho (iityala), iimbambano ezinkulu zamakhaya, neminye imicimbi emikhulu. Zingabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla eziphakamileyo, iinkundla zesiphaluka, okanye iinkundla zesithili kuxhomekeke kwiphondo.
  • Inkundla ezidityanisiweyo ze Jurisqualion: Ezi ntendelezo zisingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala, njengokwaphulwa kwemiqathango, iimbambano ezincinane (umzekelo iimpikiswano phantsi kwemali ethile yedola), kunye nezingagqibekanga. Imizekelo iquka iinkundla zikamasipala, iinkundla zezobulungisa, kunye neenkundla zamajaji.
  • IiNkundla zoNtlango: Icandelo elikhethekileyo kwinkqubo yenkundla evavanya uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, inkxaso yabantwana, ukukhuliswa kwabantwana, kunye namatyala ogonyamelo lwasekhaya. Ezi nkomfa zisoloko zisebenzisa indlela encinane yokuzibandakanya kwaye zisenokubandakanya iinkonzo zonxibelelwano okanye iinkonzo zentlalo.
  • Inkundla yeJuvenile: Ezi ntenganiso zisingatha amatyala abandakanya abantwana, kuquka ubuhlolo-mthetho (xa umntwana etyholwa ngesenzo esizakuba lulwaphulo-mthetho ukuba usenziwa ngumntu omkhulu) kunye nokuxhomekeka (xa umntwana elixhoba lokuxhatshazwa, ukutyeshelwa, okanye ukushiywa). Ukujoliswa phambili enkundleni encinane kusoloko kuyindlela yokulungisa izinto kunokuba kusohlwaywe.
  • [[UMTHETHO:0] Iprobate yamaNkundla:[ Ezi ntena zisingatha iziqinisekiso, imimandla, iinqanawa zokukhusela, maxa wambi nezibophelelo zempilo yengqondo.

Kwinkqubo karhulumente, iinkundla zamatyala zibizwa ngokuba ziiNkundla zeSithili zaseUnited States. Kukho iinkundla zesithili ezingama-94 kulo lonke eli lizwe, nganye igqumathel ummandla othile. Iinkundla zesithili zeFederal zisingatha amatyala abandakanya umthetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko wase-United States, iimbambano phakathi kwabemi bamazwe ahlukeneyo (xa inani lempikiswano lingaphezulu kwemiqathango ethile), kwaye amatyala urhulumente wase-U.

IiNkundla eziphandayo eziXhoba: Umgangatho wokuqala woHlola

Ithala lesibini lenkqubo yenkundla lineenkundla eziphakathi. Kwinkqubo yorhulumente, ezi zibizwa ngokuba ziiNkundla zeZibheno zaseUnited States, kwaye kukho ezili-13 kuzo: iziphaluka ezinamanani ali-11, i-D.C. isiphaluka, kunye neFederal. Kumazwe amaninzi, iinkundla eziphakathi zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesibheno okanye iinkundla zenkundla ze-appellate.

Iinkundla zetyala aziwavavanyi amatyala amatsha. Abawaphulanga amangqina, bamkela ubungqina obutsha, okanye baqhuba ityala lesibini eliyinyaniso. Endaweni yoko, bahlola ingxelo yetyala lenkundla lokuchotshelwa kwetyala elikhoyo (iimibhalo ebhaliweyo, imiboniso, iintshukumo, kunye nemithetho-siseko) ukuze bafumanise enoba kukho naziphi na iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ezenzekayo ezichaphazelekayo kwiziphumo zetyala. Imbambano ayikuba ngaba abachopheli-tyala bafikelela kwisigqibo esi "esokunene" kodwa nokuba ngaba ityala liqululwe ngokusesikweni nangokuvumelana nomthetho.

Izibheno azizenzeki ngokuzenzekelayo kulo lonke ixesha. Iqela elifuna isibheno, elibizwa ngokuba yi- apnellant, kufuneka lifake isaziso sesibheno kumda wexesha elingqongqo (ngokunjalo iintsuku ezingama 30 ukusuka ekungeneni komgwebo). Kwezinye iimeko, umbhexeshi kufuneka aphawule impazamo ethile esemthethweni eyenzekileyo xa kuvavanywa. Ukuba akukho mpazamo izakufunyaniswa, isibheno singarhoxiwa.

Indlela Esebenza Ngayo Inkqubo Eceliweyo

Inkqubo yesambuku ilandela ulandelelwano. Ukuqonda inyathelo ngalinye kunceda kucace indlela inkqubo yenkundla eqinisekisa ngayo ukuphendula nokulungisa ekwenzeni izigqibo.

  • [[FLT: 0] Ipeyinti yesibheno: Iifayile ezidityanisiweyo yisaziso esisemthethweni ngenkundla egwebayo ebonisa injongo yokubhena. Olu xwebhu lubangela ukudluliswa kwengxelo yetyala kwinkundla yetyala.
  • Ikhutshelwe kwisibheno: Umabhalane wenkundla ovavanyiweyo uqokelela ingxelo esemthethweni, kuquka zonke izibongozo, iitranskript, iintetho zobungqina, imiboniso, kunye nomgwebo wenkundla evavanyiweyo. Le ngxelo yeyona ngxelo yeyona iqwalaselwe yinkundla yezocawa.
  • Briefs: omabini amaqela angenisa iimpikiswano ezibhaliweyo ezaziwayo njengefutshane. I-applent ichaza ngokufutshane isizathu sokuba inkundla yokuvavanya yenze impazamo esemthethweni kwaye kutheni loo mpazamo ifuna ukutshintsha okanye ukuvavanywa okutsha. I-aumelle (iqela elaphumelela ekuchotshelweni) ikhupha impikiswano emfutshane yokuba isigqibo senkundla evavanyiweyo sasichanile kwaye kufuneka siqinisekiswe. IAmicuruscure ("umhlobo wenkundla") isenokugcinwa ngamaqela amathathu anomdla.
  • Impikiswano engaqhelekanga: Kumatyala amaninzi adibeneyo, udweliso lwenkundla lwempikiswano yomlomo, ngexesha apho amagqwetha kumacala omabini anikela iingongoma zawo ezingundoqo kwaye aphendule imibuzo evela kubagwebi. Impikiswano yequmrhu idla ngokuba mfutshane (ngokufutshane 15 ukuya ku 30 imizuzu kwicala ngalinye) kwaye ayiyongxubeko-mva yezibalo kodwa ayiyo ingxubusho eqwalaselweyo yemibandela engokwasemthethweni.
  • Isigqibo: Emva kokuqwalasela iimpikiswano ezifutshane nezidluliselwa ngomlomo, inkundla enika uluvo olubhaliweyo. Uluvo luchaza ingqiqo yenkundla luze luchaze iziphumo: qinisekisa (igunyazisa isigqibo senkundla evavanyiweyo), ukujika (ngokujika isigqibo), ukubuyisela (umva ityala emva kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukwenzela ukungqinelana ngokuqhubekayo noluvo), okanye ukuguqula (utshintsha amalungu esigqibo).

Iinkundla eziphandayo ziva amatyala kumacandelo amathathu abagwebi. Kwimiba ethile enqabileyo nebalulekileyo, inkundla epheleleyo isenokuliva eli tyala ngokuvala, okuthetha ukuba bonke abagwebi abakhutheleyo benkundla banenxaxheba kwesi sigqibo.

IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo: INkundla YezoKwiNkundla Yokugqibela

Kwincopho yequmrhu lezahlulelo zihleli kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Kwinkqubo karhulumente, le yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States. Kwinkqubo zikarhulumente, ngokuqhelekileyo ibizwa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo yephondo (nakuba iseNew York, inkundla ephakamileyo ibizwa ngokuba yiNkundla yezibheno, enokuba ngumthombo wesiphithiphithi-phithi. Inkundla ephakamileyo ligunya lokugqibela kwimibuzo yomthetho olawulwa yiyo.

Indima yenkundla ephakamileyo yahlukile ngokusisiseko kweyomthetho oqulunqweyo okanye yenkundla ephakathi. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo azinankxalabo ngokuyintloko ngokulungisa iimpazamo zabantu; ngumsebenzi weenkundla eziphakathi. Endaweni yoko, iinkundla eziphakamileyo zigxininisa kwimibandela ebaluleke kakhulu engokwasemthethweni.

Imisebenzi Engundoqo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo

  • Isigqeba esinguMphathi-mthetho woMthetho: Izigqibo zenkundla ephakamileyo zibophelelekile kuzo zonke iinkundla ezincinci kulawulo lwazo. Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ichaza umthetho wesizwe okanye umGaqo-siseko, zonke iinkundla zorhulumente kufuneka zilandele olo toliko. Oku kuqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho.
  • Ingcaciso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo: iinkundla eziphakamileyo zinamandla okuhlola imithetho kunye nezenzo zikarhulumente ngenxa yomgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya, elaziwa ngokuba luhlolo lomthetho, lasekwa kwityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-Marbury v. Madison (103). Inkundla ephakamileyo ingabetha umthetho odluliswe yiBhunga okanye indlu yowiso-mthetho ukuba iyawuphula umGaqo-siseko.
  • Izigqibo zenkundla ephakamileyo zimisela imiqathango enyanzelisayo ebumba ukuphuhliswa komthetho kangangamashumi eminyaka okanye kwaneenkulungwane. Iimeko zokuphawula njenge Brown v. Board yemfundo (1954), eyavakalisa ucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke olungekho mgaqweni, kunye noRoe v. Wade (1973), eyamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokukhupha isisu, icacisa iziphumo ezinzulu zemithetho yenkundla ephakamileyo kwibutho labantu.
  • Isigqibo sokwamkelwa kwetyala: ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala kunye neenkundla eziphakathi, ezimele zive amatyala eziziswa phambi kwazo, iinkundla ezininzi eziphakamileyo zinegunya lobunkunkqele. Zikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala okuva. KwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., oku kwenziwa ngenkqubo ye-cretioriari. INkundla yamkela amawaka ezicelo unyaka ngamnye kodwa inika abangaphantsi kwekhulu ukuba baphinde bahlole. Isigqibo sokunika imvume yokuvota ekwane kwezisithoba (umthetho "umthetho wesine").

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. inezigwebi ezisithoba, kuquka iJaji enye eyintloko kunye nezigwebi ezisibhozo ezimanyeneyo. Amatyala atyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye aqinisekiswa yiNdlu yeeNgwevu. Asebenza amadinga obomi bonke, ahloselwe ukubakhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika nokukhusela inkululeko yokulawula.

Ulwalamano Phakathi KweeNkundla Zorhulumente NezoManyano

Enye yezona mpawu zahlukileyo zenkqubo yenkundla yase-U.S. sisakhiwo sayo esibini: iinkqubo zenkundla eyahlukeneyo nesaseluntwini zisebenza ngamacala. Inkqubo nganye ineenkundla zayo zokuvavanya, iinkundla zetyala, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo. Isitshixo sokuqonda le nkqubo idibeneyo sikwingqiqo yolawulo.

Iinkundla zeli lizwe zinegunya jikelele kumatyala avele phantsi komthetho wephondo. Oku kuquka iimbambano ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni: amatyala amaninzi olwaphulo-mthetho (ngaphandle kwalawo abandakanya ulwaphulo-mthetho lukarhulumente), iimbambano, iimbambano zempahla, imicimbi yomthetho wentsapho, amatyala omntu onzakalayo, kunye nemicimbi yeprobate. Urhulumente ngamnye unemithetho yakhe, imithetho yenkundla, kunye neenkqubo, nto leyo ethetha ukuba ityala elifanayo linokuconjululwa ngokwahlukileyo kumazwe awahlukeneyo.

Iinkundla zoManyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo. Zinokuva kuphela amatyala abandakanya umbuzo karhulumente (ukuthetha okuvela phantsi komGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ummiselo, okanye isivumelwano) okanye ukwahluka-hluka kobumi (xa amaqela angabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo kunye nemali ephikisanayo ingaphezulu lee-R35 000). Iinkundla zoManyano zikwasingatha amatyala okuwa kwamalungelo, amatyala aphantsi komGaqo-siseko, namatyala abandakanya urhulumente wase-U.S.

Ityala ngamanye amaxesha lingaviwa kwinkundla yelizwe okanye yesizwe, imeko eyaziwa njengegunya elilawulayo. Umzekelo, ukumangalelwa phakathi kwabemi bemimandla eyahlukeneyo ebandakanya impikiswano yesivumelwano kungabekwa enkundleni yephondo okanye, ukuba ixabiso lempikiswano lingaphaya kwee-$75,000, kwinkundla yephondo esekelwe kulawulo oluhlukeneyo. Ummangalelwa ukhetha i-Forum, kodwa ummangalelwa unelungelo lokususa elikwinkundla yesizwe.

Indlela yokukhupha ityala likarhulumente nelorhulumente yohlukene. Ityala eliqala kwinkundla yamatyala karhulumente lihamba ngenkqubo yetyala, ekugqibeleni, kwinkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe. Ekuphela kwendlela ityala lorhulumente elinokufikelela ngayo kwinkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. linokuba libandakanya umbuzo karhulumente, njengengxelo yokuba umthetho karhulumente uyawonakalisa umGaqo-siseko we-U.S.. Kuloo meko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inogunya lokuhlola isigqibo senkundla ephakamileyo yelizwe.

Iinkundla Ezikhethekileyo Ngaphakathi Kwenkqubo

Ngaphaya kwesakhiwo esikwiziqendu ezithathu, kukho iinkundla eziliqela ezikhethekileyo ezisingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala. Ezi nkundla zikho kumanqanaba orhulumente norhulumente omabini kwaye zenzelwe ukuphuhlisa ubuchule kwiindawo ezithile zomthetho.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ezimanyeneyo

Inkqubo karhulumente iquka iinkundla eziliqela ezilawula ilizwe lonke kwimibandela ethile:

  • Inkundla yezibheno yeUnited States yeFederal Stubert: Le nkundla ithetha izibheno kumatyala asemthethweni, amatyala avela kwiNkundla yeeNgxelo zoMalume, neminye imicimbi ekhethekileyo. Yinkundla enye enegunya lesizwe, ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zesiphaluka zephondo eziva izibheno ezivela kwiindawo ezithile zomhlaba.
  • Inkundla yeUnited States of International Trade: Le nkundla isingatha izenzo zamakhaya ezibandakanya urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe kunye nemithetho yezithethe.
  • [[UMTL:0] Inkundla yerhafu yeUnited States: Le nkundla ithetha iimpikiswano phakathi kwabaqeshi berhafu kunye neNkonzo yeNgeniso yangaphakathi (IRS) phambi kokuba umhlawuli werhafu ahlawule irhafu ephikiswayo.
  • Inkundla iqwalasela iinkolelo zenkundla kunye neminye imicimbi yobulungisa basemkhosini.
  • Liyamanyene neNkundla yobuNcukubhede beMazwe Obuphezulu (FISC): [ Le nkundla yasese ihlola izicelo zokhangelo lwezombane kunye neminye imisebenzi yokuqokelela ubuntlola eUnited States.

Iinkundla ezizodwa zeSizwe

Amazwe amaninzi aye avelisa iinkundla ezikhethekileyo, ezidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ziinkundla ezicombulula iingxaki, ezigxininisa ekucombululeni imicimbi esisiseko ekhokelela kwizenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho:

  • [[UMTL:0] IiNkundla zeMipu:[ Ezi nkundla zinika esinye isigwebo kubenzi beziyobisi abangenabundlobongela, zidibanise ulawulo lwejaji nonyango kunye nokubuyiselwa.
  • IiNkundla zempilo yeNkcubeko yeNkcubeko: Ezi ntena ziphambukisa abantu abanesifo sengqondo kwinkqubo yesithethe yezobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho kwinkqubo zonyango.
  • Inkundla ze-Veterans:[ Ezi nkundla zithetha ngeemfuno ezikhethekileyo zamava omkhosi abandakanyeke kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho olulawulayo, ngokufuthi zinika unyango lwePTSD, ukusetyenziswa kakubi kweziyobisi, kunye neminye imiba enxulumene nenkonzo.
  • IiNkundla ezikwishumi elivisayo:[ Ezi ntendelezo zivumela abaphuli-mthetho abaselula ukuba bagwetywe liqumrhu labachopheli-tyala loontanga babo, begxininisa ekuphenduleni ityala nakwimfundo kunokuba bohlwaye.

Ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo zibonisa ukuqondwa okukhulayo kokuba iindlela zokuthetha ngokutsha zisenokungabi yeyona ndlela iphumelelayo yokucombulula iindidi ezithile zamatyala, ingakumbi ezo zibandakanya impilo engokwengqondo, ukukhotyokiswa, okanye izaphuli - mthetho ezincinane.

Iinkundla Zezizwe Ngezizwe Nendima Yazo

Ngeli nqaku lijolise ngqo kwinkqubo yenkundla yase-U.S., kufanelekile ukuphawula ukuba izakhiwo ezifanayo zolawulo zikhona kwamanye amazwe amaninzi nakwiqondo lezizwe ngezizwe. Ingcamango yemijukujelwa edityanisiweyo ayingoMelika kuphela; luphawu lwenkqubo yomthetho ehlabathini jikelele.

Iinkundla zezizwe ngezizwe, njenge INkundla yeNtlanganiso yamaLungelo eMalunga eMalunga [ICP], iNkundla yeNtlanganiso yeNtlanganiso yeNtshona Koloni yeNkqutyana yeNkundla yoLuntu yeNtlalo-ntle yeNtshona Koloni], isebenza kwimigaqo eyahlukeneyo kodwa ikwasebenzisa uhlobo lokuziqwalasela. I-ICJ isombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, abantu ngabanye ngenxa yokutshatyalaliswa kwesizwe, ulwaphulo-mthetho, ulwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho ngokuchasene noluntu, kunye ne-ECHRS eziva izikhalazo ezisuka kubantu ngabanye ezingqungquthelanayo kwi-Nkulumbuso yoluntu. Ezi nkundla azina zisebenzisana migaqo-mthetho yesizwe kunye neenkundla zesizwe ezithenwano zobuhlanga kunye neenkundla zesizwe.

Isizathu Sokuba Kubaluleke Ukuyiqonda Inkqubo Yenkundla

Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda inkqubo yenkundla kungaphezulu kunokulandela imfundo. Kubalulekile ukuba abemi abanolwazi. Iinkundla zilapho amalungelo akhuselweyo, iimpazamo zilungiswa khona, kwaye imida yamandla karhulumente imisiwe. Ukwazi ukuba yiyiphi inkundla ezivayo iindidi zamatyala, indlela akhuthaza ngayo, nokuba yiyiphi indima ephunyezwa yinkundla ephakamileyo enika abantu amandla okulawula inkqubo esemthethweni ngokunempumelelo nokugcina urhulumente wabo ephendula.

Inkqubo yenkundla ikwabonisa amaxabiso abanzi entlalo-ntle. Ilungelo lokuchophela ityala elifanelekileyo, ilungelo lokubhena ngesigqibo esichaseneyo, kunye nomgaqo wokuba kwanorhulumente kufuneka alandele umthetho ziimpawu zebutho labantu elixabisa okusesikweni nomthetho. Icandelo elizimeleyo, elingenayo ingxubevange yezopolitiko, liyisiseko solawulo lwedemokhrasi.

Ngaphezu koko, inkqubo yenkundla esebenza kakuhle ixhasa ukukhula kwezoqoqosho ngokunika inkqubo eqinisekisiweyo nenokuthenjwa yokuqinisekisa ukunyanzelisa nokucombulula iimbambano zeshishini. Amashishini kunye nabatyali-mali basengozini yokutyalwa kumazwe apho besazi ukuba amalungelo abo aya kukhuselwa ziinkundla ezingakhethi buso.

Inkqubo yenkundla ayifezekanga. Inokuba yeyona nto icothayo, ixabisa kakhulu, kwaye ingakwazi ukufikeleleka kubantu abaninzi. Kukho iingxoxo eziqhubekayo malunga nokukhethwa kwetyala, imali ekhusini, isigwebo sokungacaluli, nemfuneko yokuguqula. Kodwa ukuqonda indlela inkqubo esebenza ngayo linyathelo lokuqala ekuyiphuculeni.

Abo banqwenela ukuqwalasela le miba ngokubhekele phaya, i-website ye-official ye-U.S. inika iinkcukacha ezineenkcukacha ngenkqubo yenkundla yesizwe, kuquka ugcino-lwazi kunye nogcino-lwazi olukwimiba. I-Melika Bar Association's Division for Public Education[ inika ubutyebi bezixhobo ezilungiselelwe ukunceda uluntu luqonde indlela iinkundla zokusebenza nesizathu sokuba zikho.

Isiphelo: Inkqubo Yokuxilonga Nokulungelelana Okungaphakathi Kwisixhobo Somculo

Inkqubo yenkundla eUnited States sisakhiwo esilungelelaniswe kakuhle apho umgangatho ngamnye usebenza khona ngenjongo eyahlukileyo nebalulekileyo. Iinkundla zamatyala, nokuba zisebenza jikelele okanye zilinganiselwe, ngamahashe ejaji, ukusombulula uninzi lweempikiswano ezibakho phambi kweenkundla. Iinkundla ze-intermediaste appelllate zinikela umaleko ogxekayo wokuhlola, ukufumana iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni nokuqinisekisa ukuba iimvavanyo ziqhutywa kakuhle. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo, phezulu kwemigangatho, zinika ulawulo lokugqibela, ubumvo obupheleleyo, kunye nokuchazwa okunegunya komthetho kunye nomGaqo-siseko.

Esi sakhiwo sikhulu esineziphene asingomkhethe; sibonakalisa uyilo lwamabhongo oluza kulungelelanisa imfuneko yokusebenza kakuhle nemfuneko yokuchanabeka nokungaguquguquki. Ngokunika imigangatho emininzi yohlalutyo, inkqubo yenkundla inciphisa ubungozi bezigqibo ezingekho ngqiqweni okanye eziphosakeleyo ngeli xesha ivumela umthetho ukuba ukhule ngokukhutshwa ngemizekelo ekwakukhokelelwa kuyo imizekelo yexesha elizayo.

Nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni kwibutho ledemokhrasi, inkqubo yenkundla inikela isibona - langa esinamandla sokubona ukusetyenziswa kwezibakala, umthetho, inkqubo, nomgaqo. Enoba ungumfundi olungiselela imviwo yezentlalo-ntle, umnini-shishini ofuna ukukhusela izilangazelelo zakho, okanye ummi nje ofuna ukuqonda amalungelo akho, ukuqiniswa kwenkqubo yenkundla kusisisixhobo esibalulekileyo.