Table of Contents
INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States imi njengenye yezona nkundla zinamandla ehlabathini, isebenzisa igunya lokuchaza umGaqo-siseko nokubumba amalungelo asisiseko abemi baseMerika. Ngezigqibo zenkcazo ezithabatha iinkulungwane ezimbini, iNkundla iye yaphendula imibuzo erhabaxa ngokulingana, inkululeko, igunya likarhulumente, namalungelo omntu ngamnye. La matyala awakhange acombulule iimbambano ezithile zomthetho kuphela kodwa aye aguqula nebutho lamaMerika, ephembelela yonke into ukusuka kwimfundo nakusesikweni kolwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kuvota amalungelo nenkululeko yobuqu.
Ukuqonda la matyala abalulekileyo eNkundla ePhakamileyo kunika ukuqonda okubalulekileyo ngendlela inkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika esebenza ngayo, indlela imigaqo yesiseko esetyenziswa ngayo kwiimeko zehlabathi lokwenene, nendlela ulungelelwaniso lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente olugcinwa ngayo. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luhlola ezona zigqibo zibalulekileyo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo eMelika eziye zachaza umthetho waMadolophana kwaye ziyaqhubeka zichaphazela ubomi bethu namhlanje.
Isiseko seResolution: Marbury v. Madison (103)
NgoFebruwari 24, 1803, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. okokuqala yavakalisa isenzo seNkundla engekho mgaqo-siseko, ngaloo ndlela imisela imfundiso yokuhlola okubhaliweyo kwityala eliphawulayo leMarbury v. Madison. Esi sigqibo ngokusisiseko sayiguqula inkqubo engokwasemthethweni yaseMerika saza samisela ijelo lomthetho njengesebe elilinganayo likarhulumente ecaleni kwamasebe owiso-mthetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu.
Imeko Nemvelaphi Yezobupolitika
Le meko yavela kwimeko etyholwa ngokwezobupolitika ngexesha lokutshintsha kwegunya lomongameli. UMongameli uJohn Adams wabizwa ngokuba nguWilliam Marbury njengenye yezigwebo ezingamashumi amane anesibini zoxolo ngoMatshi 2, 1801, kwaye iNdlu yeNdlu yeNdlu yeMatshi yaqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa kwemimiselo ngosuku olulandelayo, Matshi 3, eyayinguAdams usuku lokugqibela lobungangamsha. Noko ke, ukusebenza kukaNobhala weSizwe uJohn Marshalls wahluleka ukukhulula ezine zezigunya, kuquka neziko, kwaye xa uThomas Jefferson wamisa isikhundla ngoMatshi 4, wayalela ukuba ii-ofisi ezine eziseleyo zinqunyiwe.
UMarbury wamangalela unobhala omtsha wephondo, uJames Madison, ukuze afumane uthumo lwakhe. Le mbambano ibonakala incinane yayiza kuba yenye yezona ziganeko zibalulekileyo kwimbali engokwasemthethweni yaseMerika.
Iqhinga leBrilliat likaMarshall
Uluvo lwenkundla lwabhalwa nguMgwebi oyiNtloko uJohn Marshall, owayila uluvo lwenkundla malunga nothotho lwemibuzo emithathu eyayiyiphendula. Indlela kaMarshall yayilumkile, ethetha nokuba uMarbury wayenelungelo kuthunyelelwa, nokuba umthetho wawunika isicombululo, nokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayinogunyaziso lokukhupha unyango.
Inkundla yawisa icandelo 13 loMthetho weMithetho yeJadicia wowe-1789, ivakalisa ukuba iinkundla zaseMerika zinamandla okuphelisa imithetho eziyifumanayo yokuchasana nomGaqo-siseko(amandla ngoku aziwa ngokuba luhlolo-gwebo. Lo mgaqo waba sisixhobo esisesona somthetho-siseko wamaMerika.
Impembelelo Engapheliyo Yokuhlolisisa Ijaji
Isigqibo kule Nkalo iPhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ilungelo leenkundla lokumisela ubume bezenzo zomGaqo-siseko zamanye amasebe amabini karhulumente. Marbury v. Madison ubalulekile ngenxa yokuba wamisela amandla okuhlola inkundla ephakamileyo ye-U.S. kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zephondo ezijonge umGaqo-siseko, kwaye ukuqheliselwa kwekomiti yezomthetho kuya kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba ijaji lejaji ihlala ilisebe elilinganayo likarhulumente ecaleni kwesebe lowiso-mthetho kunye namasebe aphetheyo.
Ibinzana elidumileyo elisuka kwisigqibo, "Kugxininisa umsebenzi weSebe lezeeJaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko," liphinde laphinda ngomthetho waseMelika ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Nangona kungekho mthetho uvakaliswe ungekho mthethweni de kwayisigqibo sikaDred Scott ka1857, indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuphelisa imithetho karhulumente nesorhulumente engakhange icelwe mngeni nzulu.
Ukudibanisa i-Secountion: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Ngaphezu kweminyaka eli-150 emva kokuba uMarbury kunye noMadison, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha esinye isigqibo esasiza kubuyisela isithethe soluntu lwaseMerika. NgoMeyi 17, 1954, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. yagqiba ngamxhelo mnye ukuba ukucalucalulana kweentlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke kwaphula uMgaqo-siseko we-14, othintela amaphondo ukuba angamkhanyeli ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho kuye nawuphi na umntu okwimimandla yawo.
Imfundiso "Yokwahlula Kodwa Elinganayo"
Isigqibo sabonisa isiphelo socalucalulo lobuhlanga olusemthethweni kwizikolo zase-United States, sigqithisa umgaqo "ohlukeneyo kodwa olinganayo" obekwe kwi 1896 Plesty v.Huguson. Imeko. Phantse ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka, isigqibo sikaPalessay sanika ugwebo olusemthethweni localulo lobuhlanga ngaphaya kwe-United States, sivumela amazwe ukuba agcine iindawo ezahlukeneyo zabemi abamhlophe nabamnyama logama nje loo zakhiwo zitheth'ethethwini.
Brown v. iBoard of Education of Topeka sisigqibo esiphawulekayo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States esawisa umthetho wokuba imithetho karhulumente emisela ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke yaphula iSahluko esilinganayo soMphetho - mhlaba we - 14neth, kwanokuba amaziko athenjiweyo alinganayo ngomgangatho.
Indlela Eya EBrown
Ityala laququzelela amatyala amahlanu ahlukeneyo avela kumazwana awahlukeneyo, onke amatyala anzima esikolo. IiBrown kunye nezinye iintsapho ezilishumi elinesibini zabantsundu zasekuhlaleni zafaka ityala lenkundla yeklasi kwinkundla yeQela lemfundo lase-U. i-Topeka, imisela inkqubo yayo yokulawula i-etheractal ayizange ibe yeyasemthethweni. Inkundla ekhethekileyo egwebayo yagweba amaBrown, ixhomekeke kwiqhinga likaPlesy, kodwa i-Browns, emelelwe lirula le-NACPP ingull Civill Marshall, eyafaka isigqibo ngqo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, eyakhupha isigqibo esingqinwe ngoMeyi 1954 ngokuvuma kwayo.
Ingcali ngengqondo uKenneth noMamie Clark ngoku benza uvavanyo lonodoli oludumileyo lwaye lungundoqo kwimpumelelo yeLDF kuBrown v. ibhodi, njengoko uvavanyo lubonisa impembelelo yokukhetha abantwana abantsundu ngokubonisa ukuba abantwana abantsundu bakhokelela ekukholelweni ukuba onodoli abamnyama babengaphantsi koonodoli abamhlophe.
Isigqibo soMsebenzi weCandelo likaWarren
IJaji enkulu uWarren wachaza imbono yeNkundla, esithi "Sigqiba kwelokuba kwicandelo lemfundo kawonke-wonke imfundiso 'yokwahlukene kodwa elinganayo' ayinandawo. Izakhiwo zemfundo ezahlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo. Le ngxelo inamandla ayizange ivume ukulandelwa kwamashumi eminyaka enkqubo yomthetho kunye nenkqubo yoluntu.
Isigqibo sowe - 1954 savakalisa ukuba iindawo ezihlukeneyo zemfundo kubafundi abamhlophe nabaseAfrika baseMerika zazingalingani ngokwemvelo, yaye iBrown Board of Education igqalwa njengeyona ibalulekileyo kwimbali yamalungelo abantu baseMerika naphakathi kweyona mimiselo ibalulekileyo kwimbali yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States.
Ukusebenza kocelomngeni kunye nempembelelo yexesha elide
Ngelixesha isigqibo sasingukwaphula mhlaba, ukuzalisekisa kwabonakala kunzima kakhulu. Amaphepha ali-14 esi sigqibo awazange achaze nayiphi na indlela yokuphelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga ezikolweni, kwaye isigqibo sesibini seNkundla eBrown II (1955) kuphela esiyalelweyo ukukhulula amazwe asusela kwisantya sawo sobuqu. Lo myalelo ucacileyo wakhokelela kumashumi eminyaka enkcaso nenkqubela ecothayo.
Ukuphelisa ucalucalulo kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke zeli lizwe kwabangela umbutho wamalungelo abantu, kwenza inkqubela enokwenzeka ekuhlawulweni kwezindlu, iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kunye namaziko emfundo ephakamileyo. Esi sigqibo sakhuthaza abaxhasi bezonqulo kwaye sabonisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko unokuba sisixhobo esinamandla sokuguqula intlalo-ntlelo.
Ngaphandle kokubaluleka kwayo, kwakunenkcaso enkulu yokuphelisa ucalucalulo, ingakumbi kumazwe asemazantsi, kuqhambuka ugonyamelo kwiindawo ezithile, kunye nezinye eziphendulayo ngokuzalisekisa iinkqubo zemfundo yesikolo zabafundi abamhlophe abahlalisa abafundi abamhlophe kwizikolo zangasese, ezicalucalucaluca.
Ukubuyiselwa kwamalungelo kunye nemicimbi yangasese: Roe v. Wade (1973) kunye nokuvuselelwa Kwayo
Ngo- 1973, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yakhupha esinye sezona zigqibo zayo zididekileyo eRoe v. Wade, ivuma ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuqhomfa elisekelwe kwilungelo lokuba yimfihlo. Ityala langqina ukuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusela ilungelo lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokuthintelwa kakhulu ngurhulumente, ingakumbi kulowo unciphisa ukukhulelwa.
Isigqibo Sokuqala
Isigqibo seNkundla esisi-7-2 kwiRoe v. Wade wavuma ukuba i-Unit Procession Claus e-14th Amendment yanika ilungelo elisisiseko lokuba lizinze elalikhusela ukhetho lwebhinqa elikhulelweyo lokuqhomfa. Isigqibo samisela isakhiwo esilungelelanisa iminqweno karhulumente ekukhuseleni ubomi kunye nempilo kamama nxamnye nelungelo lomfazi lokuba yedwa.
Kangangeminyaka emalunga namashumi amahlanu, uRoe noWade babeyisiseko somGaqo - siseko samalungelo okuqhomfa eUnited States, nangona sasinempikiswano enzulu yaye siphantsi kweengxaki nemiqathango emininzi ukutyhubela iminyaka.
Isigqibo Nemvukelo Yabo
Ngo-2022, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yajika ngendlela ephawulekayo kwiNkundla yezeMpilo yaMadolokazi yeJackson, ibhukuqa i-Roe v. Wade kunye nesigqibo esilandelayo kwiPlanned Parenthood v. Casey. INkundla yathi umGaqo-siseko awuliniki ilungelo lokuqhomfa, ibuyisela igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa kumazwe ngamanye.
Oku kuguquka kwamela isihlandlo esibaluleke kakhulu seNkundla Ephakamileyo eyabhukuqa ikhondo layo lokuzalwa kwabantwana yaza yabangela impikiswano enzulu yesizwe ngamalungelo okuzala, ukutolika komgaqo - siseko, nendima yejaji ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabantu.
Ukuphendula koMongameli: United States v. Nixon (1974)
Ihlazo leWatergate lee - 1970 lavelisa elinye lamatyala abalulekileyo ngokuphathelele igunya elilawulayo nokuziphendulela komongameli.
Imeko yamanzi
Emva kokwaphuka kwikomkhulu leKomiti yesiZwe seDemocratic kwisakhiwo seWatergate kunye nenzame zokugquma ezalandelayo, umtshutshisi okhethekileyo uLeon Jaworski washicilela iteyipu eshicilelweyo yencoko phakathi koMongameli Richard Nixon nabalawuli bakhe. Nixon wala ukuvelisa iikhasethi, ebanga ilungelo eliphezulu.
Isigqibo Senkundla Sokuzithandela
Kwisigqibo esisi-8-0 (ngokusesikweni uWilliam Rehnquis ezimangalela), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba ngoxa kukho ilungelo eliphezulu, aligqibeleli ngokupheleleyo kwaye kufuneka linikezele kwiimfuno zobulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho. INkundla yathi uMongameli kufuneka athobele i-pains aze ajike iikhase iikhasethi.
IJaji enkulu uWarren Burger wabhala ukuba nangona uMongameli enomdla ofanelekileyo ekufihleni imfihlo, le mdla awunakuyityeshela imfuno esisiseko yenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho kulawulo olufanelekileyo lobulungisa lobulungisa bomthetho. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu, nkqu noMongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho.
Intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko
I-United States v. Nixon yabethelela umgaqo wokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano kwaye yabonisa ukuba ijaji iyakwazi ukuqinisekisa amandla omphathi nakwimicimbi ebandakanya uMongameli. Isigqibo sakhokelela ngqo ekurhoxeni kukaNixon kwiiveki ezimbalwa kamva, njengokuba iikhasethi ezikhutshiweyo zabonisa ukuba ubandakanyeke kwigqubu.
Ityala elimiselwe imizekelo ebalulekileyo malunga nemida yelungelo eliphezulu kunye nendima yejaji ekuqinisekiseni ukuphendula kwimigangatho ephakamileyo karhulumente. Lisengumzekelo wesiseko wokuqonda ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kunye nomthetho wedemokhrasi yaseMerika.
Imali Nepolitiki: IMisebenzi eManyeneyo neKhomishini yoNkqulutho (2010)
Kwesinye sezigqibo eziphikiswayo zenkulungwane yama-21, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiZinga eliManyeneyo v. iKhomishini yeNkqutyana yokuNcitho yaguqula ngokusisiseko umthetho wezemali kunye nenkcitho yezopolitiko eUnited States.
Isiqalo Setyala
I-Manity, umbutho ongathathi nxaxheba, wavelisa ifilimu egxeka uHillary Clinton ngexesha lephulo eliphambili lomongameli ka-2008. IKhomishini yoNqumo lwamaPhondo yagqiba kwelokuba ifilimu ibumba "lokukhetha unxibelelwano" nokuba usasazo lwayo luza kwaphula umthetho woMthetho weNguqulo yeBipartisan (owaziwa ngokuba nguMcCain-Fondold), eyayalela amaqumrhu namaqumrhu ekusebenziseni imali yawo yogcino-mali jikelele ukwenzela unxibelelwano olunjalo kufutshane nonyulo.
Isigqibo esi-5-4
Kwisigqibo esi-5-4, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi urhulumente akanakuyithintela inkcitho yezopolitiko ezimeleyo yemibutho, imibutho yabasebenzi, kunye nezinye izinxulumani. Uluvo loninzi, olubhalwe nguJaji Anthony Kennedy, lwathi ukusetyenziswa kwezopolitiko kuluhlobo lwentetho ekhuselwe phantsi koMphengululo wokuqala, kwaye urhulumente akanakuyithintela intetho yezopolitiko esekelwe kwiqumrhu lesithethi.
Le Nkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ngoxa urhulumente enomdla ofanelekileyo wokuthintela urhwaphilizo okanye ukubonakala korhwaphilizo, inkcitho efumaneka ngokuzimeleyo ayibenzi banyaniseke ngolo hlobo okanye babonakale bengamanyala, nto leyo ebenza bahluke kwiimpembelelo ezingqalileyo kwabaza kubhaptizwa.
Impembelelo Kwezobupolitika ZaseMerika
Isigqibo samaZwe amanyeneyo savula umnyango wokusebenzisa imali yezopolitiko ezimeleyo engenasiphelo ngemibutho, imibutho neminye imibutho. Sakhokelela ekunyukeni kweePACIOP (iiKomiti Zokwenza Isenzo Seziko) ezinokunyusa zize zichithe imali engenasiphelo ukuxhasa okanye ukuchasa abathathi-nxaxheba kwezobupolitika, lo gama nje bengalungelelani ngqo namaphulo abo baza kubhaptizwa.
Abahlalutyi bathi esi sigqibo siye savumela abantu abazizityebi kunye nemibutho ukuba baphembelele ngokungenalusini kunyulo nakumthetho, betshonisa amazwi abemi abaqhelekileyo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi ikhusela amalungelo okuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kwaye ivumela ukuba intetho yezobupolitika yomelele ngakumbi.
Esi sigqibo sisaqhubeka sidideka yaye siye sabangela iimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngendima yemali kwezobupolitika, indlela emele ibe ngayo ishishini, nokuchazwa ngokufanelekileyo koMhla - phantsi Wokuqala wezorhwebo kwimibutho yezokhuphiswano.
Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Miranda v. Arizona wamisela imfuneko yokuba amagosa omthetho arhanelwe ngamalungelo awo omgaqo-siseko phambi kokuncinwa kwelungelo lokugcina umntwana. Izilumkiso ezidumileyo "IMiranda" ziquka ilungelo lokuhlala buthule, isilumkiso sokuba nantoni na ethethwayo isenokusetyenziswa nxamnye nomntu orhanelwayo enkundleni, ilungelo kwigqwetha, nelungelo lokutyunjwa ligqwetha ukuba eli lityala alikwazi ukulithenga.
Ityala lavela xa uErnesto Miranda wabanjwa waza wavuma izono zakhe ngaphandle kokuxelelwa ngamalungelo akhe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho we-5-4 wokuba ityala alinakusebenzisa iingxelo ezisuka ekuncinwani kwegunya ngaphandle kokuba libonise ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zokukhusela iprocedves eziphumelelayo ukukhusela ilungelo nxamnye nokuzithethelela.
Esi sigqibo siye saba nempembelelo enkulu kumthetho osetyenziswa eUnited States yaye sisekelwe ngokunzulu kwizithethe ezithandwayo zaseMerika. Izilumkiso zeMiranda ngoku ziyinxalenye eqhelekileyo yenkqubo yokubamba yaye ziye zaboniswa kwimiboniso yemiboniso nemifanekiso eshukumayo emininzi kamabonwakude.
UGideon . Wainwright (1963)
KuGidiyon, uWainwright, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yagqiba ngamxhelo mnye ukuba kufuneke phantsi koMthetho weSithandathu wokuHlaziya ukulungiselela amagqwetha kwizityholo ezingakwaziyo ukuhlawula amagqwetha azo. Esi sigqibo sandisa ilungelo lokucebisana, ngaphambili elaliqinisekiswe kumatyala karhulumente kuphela, ukuvakalisa izaphuli-mthetho.
UClarence Earl Gideon wamangalelwa ngokuqhekeza nokungena eFlorida, engakwazi ukuhlawula igqwetha, wacela ukuba inkundla imisele elinye, kodwa isicelo sakhe sakhatywa. uGidiyon wazimela waza wagwetywa. Evalelwe entolongweni, wanika ityala kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo ephikisayo esithi amalungelo akhe omGaqo-siseko aye aphulwa.
Isigqibo seNkundla kuGidiyon sona samisela umgaqo wokuba ukumela okusemthethweni kungundoqo kwityala elisesikweni nokuba urhulumente makanikezele amagqwetha kubamangalelwa abamangalelwa kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela ekusungulweni kwenkqubo yabakhuseli boluntu kulo lonke elaseUnited States kwaye sandisa kakhulu ukufikelela kokusesikweni kwabamangalelwa abangamahlwempu.
Virginia (1967) enothando
I-Virginia enothando yawisa imithetho ekwalelwe ukutshata abantu abahlukeneyo, isithi imithetho enjalo yaphula umthetho okwiSikhuseli soMgaqo-nkqubo kaClaus kunye ne-Active Procesme Claus of the 145 Dementement. Eli tyala libandakanya uRichard noMildred Loving, isibini esineentlobo ngezizwe esagwetywa unyaka entolongweni eVirginia ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho wesizwe ochasene nomthetho we-onqanda ukuhla kwe-mthetho.
Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo esaqulunqwa ngamxhelo mnye savakalisa ukuba umtshato lilungelo elisisiseko loluntu kwaye uthintelo lomtshato olusekelwe kwikhethelo lobuhlanga lwawuchasa umGaqo-siseko. IJaji enkulu uEarl Warren wabhala ukuba "inkululeko yokutshata isoloko iqwalaselwa njengenye yamalungelo obuqu abalulekileyo afunekayo kusukelo olucwangcisiweyo lolonwabo lwamadoda akhululekileyo"
Esi sigqibo saphelisa imithetho efanayo kumaphondo ali-16 saza samisela indlela yamatyala azayo akwandisa amalungelo omtshato, kuquka isigqibo sonyaka-2015 eObergefell v. Hodges, esigqala umtshato onxulumene neentlobano zesini njengelungelo lomgaqo-siseko.
INew York Times Co. Co. Sullivan (1964)
Eli tyala libalulekileyo loLawulo lokuqala loMphetho-mval'eyenziwe lamisela "unyamezelo lomntu" umgangatho wokutyhola amatyala abandakanya amatyala karhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba amagosa karhulumente akanako ukufumana umonakalo wobuxoki obunxulumene nehambo yawo esemthethweni ngaphandle kokuba angqine ukuba le ngxelo yenziwa ngobubi obuboqobo qha, ngokokuba ngolwazi ukuba yayibubuxoki okanye ngokungakhathali enoba yayibubuxoki okanye akunjalo.
Eli tyala lavela kwisibhengezo seThe New York Times esasineempazamo eziyinyaniso ngokuphathelele izenzo zamapolisa ebudeni bokuqhankqalaza kwamalungelo abantu eMontgomery, eAlabama. uL.B. Sullivan, ummeli wesixeko, wamangalela isohlwayo waza waphumelela kwiinkundla zaseAlabama.
INkundla Ephakamileyo yajika, ikholelwa ukuba iSihlaziyo sokuqala sifuna ubungqina obuphezulu kumatyala ahlab
ISithili seTinker .Des Moines Independent School Community (1969)
Des Moines wamisela ukuba abafundi aba "wayeki amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko enkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lesikolo." Ityala lalibandakanya abafundi ababenxibe iintambo ezimnyama esikolweni beze kuqhankqalaza imfazwe yaseVietnam yaye bebotshelelwe ngenxa yoko.
INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wesi-7-2 wokuba isithili sesikolo saphula amalungelo abantwana oLawulo lokuqala. IJaji uAbe Fortas yabhala ukuba amagosa ezikolo afanele athethelele ukuphengulula intetho yabafundi, kufuneka abonise ukuba ihambo "ngezinto eziphathekayo neyakuphazamisana ngokunzulu" nokusebenza kwesikolo.
Esi sigqibo siye sangundoqo ekuchazeni umlinganiselo wamalungelo abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke wonke yaye siyaqhubeka sikhankanywa kwiimeko ezibandakanya abafundi, ukususela kwiindlela zokunxiba ukusa kwiinkqubo zezezentlalo.
Ukuqonda Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Kulawulo - melo LwaseMerika
Amandla Okucaciswa Kwezigwebo
Amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo okuchaza umGaqo-siseko unika impembelelo enkulu kumthetho nakuluntu lwaseMelika. Ngezigqibo zayo, iNkundla igqiba oko umGaqo-siseko uthetha kona ekusebenzeni, isebenzisa imigaqo yeshumi elinesibhozo kwingxaki eziphambili ezingama-21. Oku kuchaza kuvumela iNkundla ukuba ilungelelanise imigaqo-siseko ukuze itshintshe iimeko ngeli xesha igcina ukuqhubeka nomgangatho osisiseko.
Abagwebi abahlukeneyo bajonga ukuchazwa komGaqo-siseko ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo. Abaqulunqi bezonqulo bafuna ukutolika umGaqo-siseko ngokusekelwe kwintsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke ngexesha owamkelwa ngalo. Abahlali bomGaqo-siseko baphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ufanele ucaciswe ngokubhekiselele kwimilinganiselo egqwethekileyo kunye namaxabiso akhoyo. Ezi ndlela ezahlukeneyo zidla ngokukhokelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo ngoko kufuna ngumGaqo-siseko.
Inkqubo Yedinga Nokubaluleka Kwayo
Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo atyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye kufuneka aqinisekiswe yiBhunga leNtlanganiso. Ngenxa yokuba amatyala amela ubomi (okanye de akhethe ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi), ukutyunjwa ngako konke kungayibumba imithetho yaseMerika kangangamashumi eminyaka. Inkqubo yokutyunjwa iye yaqalisa ukuphikisana ngakumbi, ngokuvavanywa ngokunzulu kweentanda-bulumko zezomthetho ze-minenes kwaye ixela imizekelo yokuvota kwimibandela engundoqo.
Ukuqanjwa kweNkundla kuchaphazela izigqibo zayo ngendlela ephawulekayo. INkundla eneemeko eziqhelekileyo ingafikelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo kunezo ezininzi ezinokuthanani nemibandela esuk ’ iliso kumalungelo okuqhomfa ukuya kulawulo lwemipu ukuya kulawulo lwemekobume. Le nto iyinyaniso yenza izindululo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo phakathi kwezigqibo ezilandelayo.
Uqhelaniso neStar Decis
Umgaqo wokuqwalasela udecis − wesiLatini ukwenzela "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe"" inguvimba wokuba iinkundla zifanele zilandele imizekelo jikelele kwaye zingaphazamisi imicimbi. Lo mgaqo ukhuthaza uzinzo, ukuqikelelwa, nokungaguquguquki kumthetho. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyakwazi ukulawula eyayo imiqathango xa igqiba kwelokuba isigqibo sangaphambili sigqitywe ngokuphosakeleyo okanye asisasebenzi.
Isigqibo sokulawula inyathelo lomthetho sibalulekile kwaye sidida. Ngoxa abanye bephikisa ngelithi ukulungisa iimpazamo zomgaqo-siseko kubalulekile, abanye baphikisa ngelithi imizekelo isoloko idiliza umthetho kunye nokuthembana kwabantu kwijaji. Ukuguqulwa kwamvanje kweRoe v. UWade kwisigqibo seDobbs kuye kwabangela iingxoxo ezithe zathi, ukuba kunini na, iNkundla ifanele ibhukuqe imizekelo emide.
Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Kubomi Bemihla Ngemihla
Okusesikweni Kokwaphula Umthetho
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zichaphazela kakhulu indlela abasebenza ngayo umthetho nendlela abaphethwe ngayo. Ityala elifana ne-Miranda . Arizona noGidiyon kunye no-Gidiyon, uWainwright umisele imigaqo esisiseko yokukhusela abantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezinye izigqibo ziye zathetha ngemibandela enjengokuphanda nokuphangwa, isigwebo sokufa, namalungelo amabanjwa.
ezi zigqibo zilungelelanisa izilangazelelo ezikhuphisanayo: imfuneko yokunyanzeliswa komthetho nokukhuselwa komthetho, kunye nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye nokuthintelwa korhulumente kwelinye icala. Izigqibo zeNkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho zichaphazela izigidi zabantu baseMerika abasebenzisanayo nenkqubo yobulungisa nyaka ngamnye.
Imfundo Namathuba Alinganayo
Ukusuka kwiBrown v. Board yemfundo ukuya kumatyala akutshanje amalunga nokuvuma nokukhetha isikolo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yadlala indima ephambili ekulolongeniseni imfundo yaseMerika. Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela indawo abantwana abaya kuyo esikolweni, ubuncwane abanokuba nabo, kunye namathuba abanawo okuhambela phambili.
INkundla iye yaphendula imibuzo ephathelele ukuxhaswa kwemali kwezikolo, ukubonakaliswa konqulo ezikolweni, amalungelo abafundi, nokungamkeleki kwemigaqo-nkqubo yokuvuma ingcinga yohlanga. Isigqibo ngasinye sibonakalisa iingxoxo ezibanzi ngokulingana, ithuba, nendima karhulumente ekukhuthazeni okanye ekuthinteleni ukuqwalaselwa kohlanga nezinye iimpawu.
Intetho Yakukhululeka Nentetho
Ukukhusela koMphetho wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha kuye kwachazwa kwaza kwasetyenziswa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo kwiimeko ezininzi. Ukusuka kwintetho yezobupolitika nakwiphulo ukuya kwintsebenziswano nentetho engcolileyo nentiyo, iNkundla iye yachaza imida yokuzichaza okukhuselweyo.
Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela oko kuthethwa ngabantu, apho banokukuthetha khona, nemiphumo abasenokujamelana nayo ngenxa yokuthetha kwabo.
Ubumfihlelo Nobuchule Bobuqu
Nangona igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawamkela amalungelo ahlukeneyo obuqu asuka kumalungiselelo awahlukeneyo omgaqo-siseko. La malungelo aye asetyenziswa kwimibandela esusela ekuthinteleni inzala nokuqhomfa ukuya kulwalamano lobudlelane nomtshato.
Amatyala obuqu adla ngokubandakanya izigqibo zobuqu ezinzulu eziphathelele intsapho, ulwalamano, kunye nozimele mzimba. Izigqibo zeNkundla kulo mbandela zibonisa ukuchaphazela izithethe zentlalo kunye neengxoxo eziqhubekayo eziphathelele ulawulo olufanelekileyo lukarhulumente kukhetho lobuqu.
Ukugxekwa Nobuqhetseba
Imithetho yomthetho echaseneyo
Abahlalutyi kuwo wonke umgangatho wezobupolitika baye batyhola iNkundla ePhakamileyo yezomthetho ngokugweba − ukwenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kwizinto ezithandwa ngumntu okanye kwezobupolitika kunokuba babe nemigaqo engoondilele engokwasemthethweni. Abo baxhasa ukuthotyelwa kwemithetho baphikisa ngelithi iinkundla zifanele zithobele amasebe anyuliweyo karhulumente zize ziphephe ukuvelisa amalungelo amatsha okanye imigaqo-nkqubo engasekelwanga ngokucacileyo kwimibhalo yomGaqo-siseko.
Abaxhasi bendima yokugweba ekhutheleyo baphikisa ngelithi iinkundla kufuneka zikhusele amalungelo omgaqo-siseko naxa ukwenjenjalo kungathandwa, nokuba ulwimi olubanzi lomGaqo-siseko lufuna ukutolikwa nokusetyenziswa kweemeko ezintsha. Le ngxoxo ibonakalisa ukungavumelani okusisiseko ngendima efanelekileyo yeenkundla kwidemokhrasi.
Umthetho Nentembelo Yoluntu
Igunya leNkundla Ephakamileyo ekugqibeleni lixhomekeke ekuvunyweni koluntu kwizigqibo zayo. Ngokungafaniyo nesebe eliphetheyo, iNkundla ayinamkhosi wokunyanzelisa imithetho yayo. Ngokungafaniyo nesebe lemithetho, alimele liphendule ngokuthe ngqo kubavoti. Igunya leNkundla lixhomekeke kwimbono yokuba ikhetha amatyala asekelwe kumthetho kunokuba asekelwe kwezobupolitika.
Iimpikiswano zakutshanje, kuquka iimfazwe zempikiswano kunye nezigqibo ezibhukuqa iinqobo ezikudala zikho, ziye zaphakamisa inkxalabo ngokuyeka ukuthembana kwabantu kwiNkundla. Ii-poliki zibonisa ukukhula kokwanda kokungahambelani kweembono zeNkundla, ngokuvunywa rhoqo kuxhomekeke ekubeni izigqibo zakutshanje zinxulumene kusini na nezinto ezithandwa ngumntu kwezobupolitika.
Izindululo Zokutshintsha
Kuye kwenziwa iingcamango ezahlukeneyo zokuguqula iNkundla ePhakamileyo, kuquka imiqathango esetyenziswayo ukwenzela amatyala, ukwandisa inani labagwebi, nokuguqula inkqubo yokumisa. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi utshintsho luyimfuneko ukunciphisa ukubekwa kwabantu ngabanye, ukuqinisekisa ukujika rhoqo, nokubuyisela intembelo yoluntu. Abachasi baphikisa ngelithi olo tshintsho luza kwenza iNkundla iqhubekeke kwaye lujongele phantsi inkululeko yokulawula.
Indlela Yokuhlala Usazi Izigqibo ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo
Emva Komsebenzi Wenkundla
Ibinzana leNkundla ePhakamileyo liqala ngo-Oktobha ukuya kuJuni okanye ekuqaleni kukaJulayi. INkundla iphulaphula iimpikiswano zomlomo kumatyala akhethiweyo nakwiingxelo ezibhaliweyo ezichaza izigqibo zayo. Ezi zimvo zikhona ekuhleni kwaye zinika ingqiqo eneenkcukacha zezigqibo zeNkundla.
Zininzi ii-website ezisemthethweni zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezipapasha izimvo, iingxoxo, nekhalenda yeNkundla. Ii-website zolwazi ezisemthethweni kunye nemibutho yezomthetho inikela uhlalutyo kunye nokugqabaza kwiityala ezithe zadlula nezigqibo zakutshanje. Izikolo ezininzi zomthetho kunye neetanki ezicinga ngeenkcazelo ezifikelelekayo zemibandela entsonkothileyo yomthetho kubantu ngokubanzi.
Ukuqonda Uhlalutyo Olusemthethweni
Ukufunda iimbono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo kunokuba lucelomngeni kwabo bangaqeqeshwanga ngokusemthethweni, kodwa ukuqonda iingcaciso ezisisiseko zomthetho kunokwenza zifikeleleke. Iimbono ziquka ingxelo yezibakala, ingxubusho yeembambano zomthetho, uhlalutyo lwemiqathango enxulumene nemigaqo-siseko, kunye nokubambelela nokuqiqa kweNkundla.
Iimbono ezingavumelaniyo, ezibhalwe ngabagwebi abangavumelaniyo nabaninzi, ngokufuthi zinika ezinye iimbono ezixabisekileyo kwaye zisenokuphembelela amatyala exesha elizayo. Iimbono ezikhoyo ziyavumelana neziphumo kodwa zinika ingqiqo eyahlukileyo. Ukufunda iimbono ezininzi kwiimeko ezibalulekileyo kunika ukuqonda okupheleleyo kweengxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni nezenkqubo ezibandakanyekileyo.
Ikamva Lomthetho WomGaqo-siseko
Iimbambano Ezimandundu
INkundla Ephakamileyo iyaqhubeka ijongene neengxaki ezintsha njengoko ubugcisa, ibutho labantu nezoqoqosho zitshintsha.
Inye kwezi ndawo iphakamisa imibuzo entsonkothileyo ngendlela yokusebenzisa imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko eyamkeleka kwiinkulungwane ezidlulileyo ngokweemeko abaQaphi bengenakuze bazicinge. Izigqibo zeNkundla ziza kubumba umthetho nebutho labantu baseMerika kwizizukulwana ezizayo.
Ukubaluleka Kokubandakanyeka Kwisityalo Secapuca
Ngoxa amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo enganyulwanga, abemi bangaphembelela ulwalathiso lweNkundla ngomgaqo wezopolitiko. Unyulo lomongameli lugqiba ukuba ngubani oya kulawula izigwebo zexesha elizayo, kwaye unyulo lumisela ukuba ngubani oya kubaqinisekisa. Ukuqonda ukubaluleka kokubekwa kwekomiti yezomthetho kungazisa izigqibo zokuvota.
Ngaphandle konyulo, abemi banokubandakanyeka kwimibandela yomgaqo-siseko ngemibutho elawulayo, ngemfundo kawonke-wonke, nangengxubusho yolwazi. Ukuba nabemi abanolwazi oluhle kubalulekile ukuze kugcinwe idemokhrasi ephilileyo nokuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akhuselwe kwaye ahlonelwe.
Oyena Mhla: Isizathu Sokuba Le Miba Ibalulekile
Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo echazwe kweli nqaku amela amaxesha abalulekileyo kwimbali yomthetho waseMerika. Ukusuka kwiMadison ukusekwa kovavanyo lokugweba kuBrown v. Ibhodi yokuphelisa imfundo, ukusuka eMiranda v. Ukukhusela kwe-Arizona kwabamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho kwimali yezehlo, ezi zigqibo ziye zabumba amalungelo esiwanandiphayo kunye nebutho labantu esiphila kulo.
Ukuqonda la matyala kusinceda siqonde indlela umGaqo-siseko osebenza ngayo njengesiseko esiphilayo sokulawula, indlela ijaji esebenza ngayo njengendlela yokuhlola igunya likarhulumente, nendlela imigaqo engokwasemthethweni eguquka ngayo ukuze icombulule iingxaki ezintsha. Ezi zigqibo zisikhumbuza ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akayongcamango nje engaziwayo kodwa aluncedo ekuchaphazeleni ubomi babantu bokwenene.
Umsebenzi weNkundla Ephakamileyo uyaqhubeka uvelisa impikiswano neengxoxo, ubonakalisa ukungavumelani okusisiseko ngokuchazwa komGaqo-siseko, indima yeenkundla kwidemokhrasi, kunye nolungelelwano phakathi kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye neenjongo ezimanyeneyo. Ngokufunda amatyala azimeleyo nokuqonda imigaqo abayimiselayo, abemi banokuba nenxaxheba ngokulunge ngakumbi kule ngxoxo ibalulekileyo kwaye bancede ukubumba ikamva lomthetho-siseko waseMerika.
Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye nempembelelo yazo, oovimba abanjengo [[FLT: 0] bewebhsayithi yeNkundla esemthethweni, [[[FLT:]] iprojekthi ye- inika ulwazi olufikelelekayo malunga namatyala, iimpikiswano zomlomo, kunye nenkqubo yogwebo. [[[FLT:] i-Anvolution Antelligation [[FLT][FLT:] kunye ne-[FLT] esuka kwithala leencwadi leBhodi yeBhom
Inkqubo yokusesikweni isenokubonakala intsonkothile kwaye ikude kubomi bemihla ngemihla, kodwa izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zichaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zebutho lamaMerika. Ngokuqonda la matyala aphawula iziganeko, sifumana ukuqonda ngendlela amalungelo ethu achazwa ngayo, indlela igunya likarhulumente elisikelwe umda ngayo, nendlela umGaqo-siseko oqhubeka ulolonga ngayo uhlanga lwethu ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini emva kokuba lumkelwe. Olu lwazi lusinika amandla okuba ngabemi abanolwazi, abakwaziyo ukubandakanyeka ngokunelisayo kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni nezobupolitika echaphazela ibutho lethu nelizwe lethu.