Table of Contents
UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weNkqutyana yeNkqutyana ye-194th luye luye luyenye yezona ntlobo zitshintshayo nezinesiphumo somGaqo-siseko waseUnited States. Lwadlula yiKhomishini kaJuni 13, 1866, lwaza lwagunyaziswa ngoJulayi 9, 1868, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMgqibo lwandisa inkululeko namalungelo anikwe yiBhili yamaLungelo kubantu ababengamakhoboka ngaphambili. Oku kulungiswa ngokusisiseko kobumi baseMelika, amalungelo oluntu, kunye nolwalamano phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente. Ukuqonda iSinyuselo lweshumi elinesine nenyanga eli-14 lubalulekile kumntu ngamnye waseMelika, njengoko amalungiselelo asongezwayo ngokunjalo, ukhuseleko olusemthethweni, nokufunwa ngokuqhubekayo kobunyuswa kobuhlanga phantsi komthetho.
Imbali Nendlela Eya Elunxwemeni
Ingxaki Yemfazwe Yasemva Kwemfazwe
Ulungiso lwaziswa ngexesha leNgqungquthela yama-39 (1865-1867) ekuphenduleni kwiimeko zocinezelo ezazikho kubemi baseAfrika ababefudula bengamakhoboka `abaziwa njengabakhululweyo' (ukuhlala kwindawo eyayisakuba yiNkundla yamakhaya. Emva kokuphela kwemfazwe yamakhaya ngo1865, ilizwe lajamelana nocelomngeni olungazange lubonwe ekuvuselelweni nasekuvuselweni kwenqanawa ngokwalo. Uhlaziywe-Mdathiso lweshumi elinesithathu lwaphelisa ubukhoboka, kodwa lwashiya imibuzo emininzi iphendulwe ngokuma komthetho namalungelo abantu ababekhotyo ngaphambili.
Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zaseMazantsi ezazinyulwe phantsi kwenkqubo kaJohnson zadibana ukuze ziphuhlise uthotho lwemithetho ebizwa ngokuba yikhowudi emnyama, eyathintela amalungelo abo babesakuba ngamakhoboka. Le mithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho yasongela ukuphinda ibangele ubukhoboka ngamagama ahlukeneyo, ukukhanyela amalungelo asisiseko abantu base-Afrika, amathuba ezoqoqosho, kunye nemigaqo-mthetho. Uninzi lwamaRiphabliki kwiBhunga laqonda ukuba ukhuseleko olunzulu kakhulu lwemithetho-siseko lwalufuneka ukukhusela inkululeko nolingana okuye kwalwelwa imfazwe yamakhaya.
Inkqubo Yomthetho
Indlela eya ekumkelweni koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine yayinzima kwaye ibekwa ityala kwezobupolitika. Umvali wentlalo uRobert Dale Owen wakhokela isigqibo sokudibanisa ezi zindululo zikwisivumelwano somgaqo-siseko esinde, eqiqa ukuba amalungiselelo aso athandwayo azakukhusela ukhuthuzo lwawo lonke. Intengiselwano yahamba kwiinguqu ezininzi ngaphambi kokuba ifikelele uhlobo lwayo lokugqibela.
Umbhali oyintloko wecandelo lokuqala loMphetho-mda we-14, u-Bingham wase-Ohio, wayenenjongo yokuba ukuhlaziywa kweBhili yamaLungelo kuphinde kuhlaziywe ngokubopha amatyala. Oku kwamela ukutshintshwa okusisiseko komthetho-siseko waseMerika, ukwandisa ukhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye kwizenzo zikarhulumente.
IBhunga lafuna ukuba obelikho liSivumelwano livume iSindululo seshumi elinesine njengemeko yokufumana kwakhona umelo lukarhulumente. Le mfuneko ididaniswayo yaqinisekisa ukubuyiselwa komngxuma kodwa kwakhona yaqalisa iingxoxo ezimalunga nokufaneleka kwawo ezaqhubeka iminyaka. NgoJulayi 28, 1868, ukubuyiselwa kwe-14 kwavakaliswa, kwisiqinisekiso soNobhala weSizwe, enconywa ngumthetho ofanelekileyo wama-28 kuma-37 eUnited States, kwaye yaba yinxalenye yomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe.
Icandelo Elinye: Ukhuseleko lwekhori
Icandelo lokuqala loMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine liqulethe amacandelo amane ahlukeneyo aye aba ziziseko zomthetho-siseko waseMerika.
Ummi UnguClaus: Ukuchaza Ukuba Ngubani OngowaseSihlalweni
Ilungiselelo eliyintloko loMphetho-mda we-14 yayikukunika ubumi "Bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States" ngaloo ndlela benika abantu ababengamakhoboka ubumi. Le ntetho ilula kodwa enamandla yasombulula omnye wemibuzo ethanda ukuphikisana kwimbali yaseMerika kwaye yasigatya ngokungqalileyo isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kaGqrde Scott esinetyala elidume kakubi ngo1857.
Amalungiselelo obumi boMphetho-mhlaba weshumi elinesine weSindululo seMithetho yeNtshona Koloni angajongwa njengokulahlwa kwelinye lamatyala ahlukeneyo kwezobupolitika enkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba. Phantsi komthetho oqhelekileyo, abantu abakhululekileyo abazalelwe kwilizwe okanye kwisizwe babengabemi balo. Noko ke, ityala loDred Scott lalivakalise ukuba amaMerika aseAfrika akasoze abe ngabemi, kungakhathaliseki ukuba azalelwa phi na. Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMthetho wokukhupha ityala locango.
Umgaqo wobuzibulo omiselwe yinguquko unentsingiselo enzulu. Ngokuvisisana noko kuqonda, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawisa umthetho kwityala le-United States lowe-1898 kunye no-Wong Kim iTrake yokuba uMphengululo we-14 uqinisekisa ubumi bobuzibulo kuye nabani na ozalelwe eUnited States, kuquka abantwana babazali abangengobemi base-U. Eli tyala lingqina ukuba ubuKapitali busebenza ngokubanzi, kungakhathaliseki ukuba abazali bangena eUnited States okanye banemvelaphi ephambili.
Iingxelo zeKhonkcothareyional zibonisa ukuba isiqinisekiso sobubanzi soMphetho-mthetho we-14 sobunyulu sasisoloko sijoliswe ekuqukiseleni abantwana bomntu ovela kwamanye amazwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuba abazali babo bakwimeko esemthethweni. Abaqulunqi be-Congress babeqonda ukuba ukuyila imilinganiselo ecacileyo, enenjongo yobumi bobumi kwakuza kuthintela ukuba bonke abantu abazalelwe kumhlaba waseMerika babenokulingana nabemi.
Amalungelo Okanye Unyukelo LukaClaus
Amalungelo okanye amaGawulayo u-Immunic Claussde uthi akukho rhulumente oza kwenza okanye anyanzelise nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugoma kwabemi base-United States. Eli binzana lalijolise ekukhuseleni amalungelo asisiseko obumi ekungeneleni kwesizwe. Xa kuveliswa inguquko, iNkulumbuso uJacob Howard waseMichigan yachaza ngokucacileyo ukuba amalungelo kunye nemithetho yokugoma iza kunwenwa kumazwe "amalungelo obuqu aqinisekisiweyo nakhuselwa zizinto zokuqala ezisibhozo ezigqityiweyo."
Ngoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalunciphisa kakhulu umlinganiselo wale ngxelo ekuqaleni kwembali yayo. Amalungelo okanye amaImmunities Claus achazwa kwiSlaughter-Indlu Cases (1873) njengothintelo lwamazwe ekungawiseni amalungelo esizwe, njengenkululeko yokuhamba. Le nkcazelo imxinwa yayithetha ukuba icandelo lingabi sisithuthi sokuqala sokukhusela amalungelo abantu kwisenzo sikarhulumente, indima enokuthi endaweni yoko iwele kwiNdlela esesikweni neSikhuseli esilinganayo sika-Claus.
INkqubo Elindelekileyo KaClaus: Ukukhusela Ubomi, Inkululeko Nezinto
Elinye ilungiselelo elibalulekileyo ngokulinganayo yayingumbandela othi "naliphi na ilizwe liya kumhlutha naliphi na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho; eli binzana lidlulisela ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lwenkqubo yeNkqubela-nzombululo kwizenzo zoorhulumente, lidala umgangatho olinganayo wokusesikweni ngobulungisa kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente.
I-Bact Claus Procession inomlinganiselo emibini owahlukileyo: inkqubo efunekayo ecacileyo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo encinci. Inkqubo yenkcazelo efunekayo ifuna ukuba urhulumente alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo phambi kokuba ahlube umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Oku kuquka ilungelo lokumqaphela, ukuva, nethuba lokuviwa phambi komenzi wesigqibo ongakhethiyo. Ezi zikhuseli zisebenza kuzo zombini izigcwabi neenkqubo zasekuhlaleni, kuqinisekisa ukuba amandla karhulumente asetyenziswa ngokusesikweni nangokucace.
Inkqubo esisiseko ephambili, ephuhliswa ngokucaciswa kweNkundla Ephakamileyo, ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente kungakhathaliseki ukuba ziziphi iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo. Le mfundiso iye yasetyenziselwa ukuqaphela amalungelo angakhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, kuquka ilungelo lokufumana ilungelo lobuqu, ilungelo lokutshata, namalungelo abazali. Ngoxa inkqubo ephantsi efunekayo iqhubeka iphikisana, iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekukhuliseni inkululeko yabantu ukutyhubela imbali yaseMerika.
Imfundiso Yokwahlukana
Ngaphambi koMphetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine, iBhili yamaLungelo yayisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, yaye ayizange ibeke imiqathango kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente. Oku kwathetha ukuba amagunya anokulwaphula amalungelo asisiseko njengenkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, okanye ukukhuselwa ekuphandeni okungekho mgaqo-siseko worhulumente.
Nge-Bault Process Claus, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe ithe yawafaka "ongeza" onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo ukuba asetyenziswe nxamnye noorhulumente bakarhulumente. EGitlow, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba uMphetho-Mtendeko weshumi elinesine wandise inkululeko yokuthetha nokushicilela amalungiselelo kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukuba asebenze kumazwe ngamanye. Le nkqubo yokuqulungela iNkumbela iDawulayo iye yaqhubeka kaninzi-mashumi eminyaka, kunye neNkugqiba ukuba ngawaphi na amalungelo asisiseko amele akhuselwe ekuhlatyelweni ngurhulumente.
Namhlanje, phantse onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo asebenza koorhulumente ngoMsebenzi woLawulo weshumi elinesine kaNondyelelo ka-Claus. Oku kumela enye yezona mpembelelo zibalulekileyo zolungiso kumthetho-siseko waseMelika, kuveliswa umlinganiselo osisiseko wokhuseleko lwamalungelo kuwo onke amazwe angamashumi amahlanu kwaye ngokusisiseko kutshintshwa ulwalamano lwesizwe norhulumente.
Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo LukaClaus: Isiseko Samalungelo Abemi
I-Acticome Protection Claus iyalela ukukhanyela nabani na olawulwa nguye ukukhuselwa okufanayo kwemithetho. Eli binzana lilula ngokukhohlisayo liye laba sisixhobo esiphambili somGaqo-siseko sokulwa ucalucalulo nokukhuthaza ukulingana kwibutho labantu baseMerika. Igalelo lifuna ukuba urhulumente aphathe abantu ngendlela efanayo, kwaye naluphi na ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo kuthethelelwa ngeenjongo ezisemthethweni zikarhulumente.
Ukulungisa, ingakumbi icandelo lalo lokuqala, yenye yeenxalenye ezicacisiweyo zomGaqo-siseko, ibumba isiseko sezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, njengeBrown v. Board of Education (1954; ukuthintela ukucalucalulana kobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke), uLong Virginia (1967; ukuphelisa ukuvalwa komtshato ngokweentlobo ezahlukeneyo), Roe v. Wade (1973; ukuvuma kwequmrhu lorhulumente ... Le miba ibonisa indima engundoqo yoKhuselo oluPhakamileyo luka-Claus
INkundla ePhakamileyo iphuhlise imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yovavanyo lokhuseleko olulinganayo. Uhlalutyo olungqongqo lusebenza kwiindidi ezisekelwe kuhlanga, kwimvelaphi yesizwe, okanye kuxanduva lomthwalo wamalungelo asisiseko. Phantsi komgangatho onyanzelisayo, urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba ukuhlelwa kwayo kusebenza inzala karhulumente enyanzelekileyo kwaye kulungelelaniswa ukuze kufunyanwe loo mdlalo. Uvavanyo oluphakathi komdla lusebenza kwimibango esekelwe kwisondo okanye ekugunyazisweni, lufuna umdla obalulekileyo nolwalamano olubalulekileyo phakathi kolwahluzo kunye nenzala.
Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla
Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)
Mhlawumbi akukho tyala libonisa bhetele amandla okuguqula e-Aumelt Protection Claus kune Brown Board of Education v. Kule sigqibo sayantlukwano, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwaphula uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lokuHlaziya, ibhukuqa imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo" eyamiselwa kwiPneby v. Ferguson (1896). Inkundla yavuma ukuba ukukhupha isigidimi sobuphantsi esonakaliswa abantwana baseAfrika kwaye ibakhanyele amathuba alinganayo okufundisa.
Brown wachaza umbutho wamalungelo abantu bale mihla kwaye wabonisa ukuba uMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine ungasetyenziswa ukuphelisa ubuhlanga. Ukuphunyezwa kwesigqibo kwajamelana nenkcaso enzima kumazwe amaninzi, kodwa kwaseka umgaqo-siseko wokuba ucalucalulo lobuhlanga lukarhulumente olulawulwayo alulingani ngokwemvelo kwaye ngenxa yoko alunamthetho.
Virginia (1967) enothando
KwiLoving v. Virginia, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho othintela umtshato wobuhlanga, isithi imithetho enjalo yaphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo noMsebenzi kaClaus noMsebenzi weNkqubo kaClaus. INkundla yaqonda ukuba umtshato lilungelo elisisiseko kwaye ukwahlulwa kobuhlanga kwimithetho yomtshato akuphumeleli njongo esemthethweni ngaphandle kokukhuthaza ubungangamela obumhlophe. Esi sigqibo sasusa umqobo ongowona mgaqo-siseko owemvelo ekumanyaneni kwabantu abahlukeneyo kwaye saqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusela ilungelo lokutshata kungakhathaliseki ukuba uhlanga luni.
Umkhombe kaWong Kim (1898)
Eli tyala labonisa ukuba umgangatho ophangaleleyo wobumi phantsi kobumi bukaNondra Claus. UWong Kim wazalwa eSan Francisco kubazali bamaTshayina ababengakufanelekeli ukubekwa phantsi kwemithetho yokulawula ngokwendalo ngelo xesha. Xa wayebuya kuhambo oluya eTshayina, urhulumente wamkhanyela ukuba abe ngummi wangaphambili, esithi akangommi. INkundla ePhakamileyo yakholelwa ukuba uLawulo lweMthethwe-Mdali lunikwe bonke abantu abazalwe eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ngabantwana okanye ukuba bangabami okanye bafaneleki ngenxa yendalo. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba ubumi bunelungelo lobuhlanga lobuhlanga kwakhona nto ingenakukhanyelwa lilungelo elisekelwe kwisizwe okanye kwimvelaphi yobuzwe.
Ezinye Iimeko Ezibalulekileyo
ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine soMphetho-mvandedwa siye saba sisiseko kwezinye izigqibo ezingenakubalwa. KwiReed v. Reed (1971), iNkundla yasebenzisa okokuqala iCommontment Protection Claus ukuphelisa ucalucalulo lwesondo. EObergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkundla yabambelela kwelokuba i-Sect Programme kunye noKhuselo lwe-Celate Calleges luqinisekisa izibini ezifanayo ezinelungelo lokutshata. KuGidiyon. Wangweright (1963), iNkundla iquka uHlutlelo lweSithandathu lokunika icebiso, iqinisekisa ukuba abamangali bebo abagwebi bafumana umelo olusemthethweni kungakhathaliseki ukuba bayakwazi ukuhlawula.
Ezinye Inxalenye ZoMthetho Wokwenziwa Komhlaba Weshumi Elinane
Ngoxa iCandelo Lokuqala lifumana ingqalelo eninzi, iSihlaziyo seshumi elinesine siqulethe amacandelo amane awongezelelekileyo athetha ngenkxalabo ethile yasemva kwemfazwe aze anike iKhomishini yokunyanzelisa ulawulo.
Icandelo Lesibini: Umelo namalungelo okuchonga
Isigqibo sikwavelisa indlela entsha yokumela i-commental, ejolise ekohlwayeni ukuba abemi abangamadoda abahluziweyo, ngaloo ndlela bekhuthaza amalungelo okuvota ase-Afrika. Icandelo Lesibini linikela ukuba ukuba urhulumente uyala ilungelo lokuvota nakuwuphi na ummi wamadoda oneminyaka engaphezu kwamashumi amabini ananye (ngaphandle kokuba athathe inxaxheba kwimvukelo okanye kwezinye izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho), loo melo kurhulumente luya kuncitshiswa ngokwemilinganiselo.
Eli lungiselelo lalicetyelwe ukukhuthaza amazwe aseMazantsi ukunika amadoda aseMerika aseAfrika amalungelo okuvota ngokusongela ukunciphisa igunya lawo lezobupolitika ukuba ayala. Noko ke, eli candelo alizange linyanzeleke ngokunempumelelo, kwaye amazwe aseMazantsi afumana ezinye iindlela zokususa abavoti Black ngokuhlawula irhafu yokuvota, iimvavanyo zobuzwilakhe, kunye nogonyamelo. Ukubhekiswa ngqo kubhekiso-"amzimfama" kwaphawula kwakhona ngexesha lokuqala umGaqo-siseko wahlula amalungelo okuvota ngesini, nto leyo eyadanisa abaxhasi bamabhinqa abaxhasayo kwaye yanikela ekudluleni ekugqibeleni kweSinyuko se-Acentiyeth Amenyusi Amenyuko-
Icandelo Lesithathu: Ukungavisisani ne-ofisi
Nabani na owayeye waququzelela ukuvukelwa okanye ukuvukela iUnited States" kwaye ngaphambili waye enze isifungo sokuxhasa umGaqo-siseko njengesibambi somsebenzi wezwe okanye wesebe lorhulumente ("walelwa kwisikhundla sonyulo ngaphandle kokuba sicaciswe yiBhunga. Eli lungiselelo lenzelwe ukukhusela iinkokeli ezazisakuba ngabaququzeleli ekubuyeleni ngokukhawuleza kwigunya nokucutha imigudu yokulungisa.
Icandelo Elithathu lisusa kwisikhundla sikarhulumente okanye sikarhulumente nabani na, owayekhe wafunga ukuxhasa umGaqo-siseko, kamva wabandakanyeka ekuvukeleni okanye ekuvukeleni iUnited States okanye wanikela uncedo okanye intuthuzelo kwiintshaba zayo. IKhomishini ingasusa le nengxaki ngevoti yesithathu yendlu nganye. Eli candelo lasetyenziswa ngokukhutheleyo ngexesha lokulungisa kodwa lasetyenziswa ngaphezu kwenkulungwane. Iziganeko zakutshanje zinomdla ohlaziyiweyo kweli lungiselelo kunye nokusebenza kwalo kwiimeko zangoku.
Icandelo lesine: Ityala Likawonkewonke
Icandelo lesine lithetha ngokubaluleka kwetyala likawonke-wonke kwaye ligatya ngokuphandle amatyala ahlawulweyo. Livakalisa ukuba ukufezeka kwetyala likawonke-wonke laseUnited States, kuquka amatyala ahlawulweyo eempesheni kunye nemali ehlawulwayo yeenkonzo zokucinezela okanye ukuvukela, akuyi kubuzwa. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, kuyalela iUnited States okanye nawuphi na urhulumente ukuba angahlawuli na amatyala okanye nayiphi na imbopheleleko eyenzekayo ekuncediseni kwimvukelo okanye kwi-United States, okanye nayiphi na into ethethwayo ngelahleko okanye ukuhlawulwa kwabakhonzi.
Eli lungiselelo laqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wephondo ufanele ukuhlonela amatyala akhe emfazwe yamakhaya ngeli lixa ethintela nawuphi na urhulumente wexesha elizayo ukuba ahlawule abo babesakuba ngamakhoboka ngenxa yokulahlekelwa yimpahla yabantu okanye ukuhlawula amatyala emfazwe. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iCandelo lesine licatshulwe kwiingxoxo ezingesityalo sikarhulumente esinguphahla lwemali kunye nembopheleleko karhulumente yokuhlawula amatyala akhe.
ICandelo 5: Amandla okunyanzelisa
Ekugqibeleni, yanika iKhomishini amandla okunyanzelisa le nguquko, ilungiselelo elakhokelela ekudlulisweni komnye umthetho ophawulayo kwinkulungwane yama-20, kuquka umThetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo weVoting Rights ka-1965. ICandelo 5 lichaza ngokucacileyo ukuba "ICandelo lamajoni lale mikhosi liya kuba namandla okunyanzelisa, ngomthetho ofanelekileyo, ngamalungiselelo eli nqaku.
Eli gunya lokunyanzelisa lenziwe libalulekile ekuzalisekiseni ukhuseleko loMthetho-Mbetho weshumi elinesine. IBhunga liye lasebenzisa eli gunya ukumisela umthetho obanzi wamalungelo abantu othetha ngocalucalulo olukhoyo emsebenzini, kwizindlu, kwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kunye nokuvota. Umlinganiselo weCandelo lesiXhosa lesi-5 ubengumbandela oqhubeke uthethwa, maxa wambi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibeka inkcaso yegunya lowiso lomthetho ngezogwebo ezithi zilungele ukukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.
Impembelelo yoMthetho weSimemezelo weshumi elinesine kuMbutho waseMerika
Utshintsho lomanyano lwesizwe
UMthetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine ngokusisiseko waguqula ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente. Ngaphambi kokuba uphathwe, iBhili yamaLungelo yanyanzelisa urhulumente worhulumente kuphela, kwaye amazwe ayenegunya elibanzi lokulawula amalungelo omntu ngamnye kwimida yawo. UMthetho weSindululo weshumi elinesine owenziwe wafaneleka ngokwesizwe, udala imilinganiselo yomgaqo-siseko emele ihlonelwe ngawo onke amaphondo.
Olu tshintsho aluzange lukhawulezi okanye luphelele. ISichibiyelo se-14 asizange siphumelele nje kuphela ukwandisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo; kwakhona asizange sixhathise ukukhusela amalungelo abemi abaNsundu. Ilifa lokulungisa kwakhona yaba ngumzabalazo ozinzileyo wabemi abamnyama nabamhlophe ukwenza isithembiso soMhlaziyi we-14 sibe yinto yokwenene. Amashumi eminyaka eSindululo, umthetho, kunye ne-activicism ayefuneka ukufumanisa ukuba ukupheliswa ngokupheleleyo kwale.
Ukuhambela phambili Kwamalungelo Abemi
Ukususela ekudluleni kwayo ngo-1868, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. iye yasebenzisa inkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nezigaba ezilinganayo zoMphengululo weshumi elinesine ukuze yandise inani kunye nobubanzi bamalungelo abantu. Ngaphezu kwayo nayiphi na enye inguquko, i-14 iye yanika isiseko samalungelo amaMerika awathi athathwa lula ngenkulungwane yamashumi amabini.
Ukulungisa kuye kwanegalelo ekudibaniseni ucalucalulo olungokwasemthethweni, ukuphelisa imithetho yokuchasa izivumelwano zomtshato, ukukhusela amalungelo okuvota, ukuqinisekisa amathuba alinganayo emfundo, nokuphelisa ucalucalulo ngesondo.
Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye
Ngemfundiso equkiweyo, uMphengululo weshumi elinesine uye waqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asisiseko akhuselwa ngokulinganayo kuwo onke amazwe. AmaMerika namhlanje anokuthembela kwimigaqo - siseko engaguqukiyo yokukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, ukukhusela ekuphandeni nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, ilungelo lokucebisa, nezinye iinkululeko ezininzi eziyimfuneko, kungakhathaliseki ukuba baphila kweliphi ilizwe.
I-Basity Process Claus itolikiwe ukukhusela amalungelo angasetyenziswayo qha, kodwa angakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Ezi ziquka ilungelo lokuzimela, ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokwenza izigqibo ngomzimba womntu, amalungelo omzali, nelungelo lokuhamba. Ngelixesha umlinganiselo wala malungelo angasetyenziswanga ngokusemthethweni ukhuphisanayo, ukuqwalaselwa kwawo kubonisa indima yoMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko ekusebenziseni ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko ekutshintsheni iimeko kunye nemilinganiselo yentlalo.
Iimbambano Neengxaki Zangexesha Elingaphambili
Iindawo Zobumi Ezifaneleyo
Phezu kwalo nje ulwimi olucacileyo lobuCitity Clause kunye nenkulungwane yokuzinziswa kwenkcazelo, ubumi bobuzibulo buye badla ngokuphikiswana ngezobupolitika kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Abanye baye baphikisa ngelithi eli binzana alifanele lisetyenziswe kubantwana abazalelwe abazali abakwilizwe okanye abakwixeshana. Noko ke, abaphengululi nabeenkundla ezingokwasemthethweni baye basoloko bezichasa ezi mpikiswano, besithi umbhalo wokulungisa awunanto ixhomekeke kwisigxina sabazali sokufuduka yaye ingxelo yembali ibonakalisa injongo yabasebenzi bobumi boluntu abapheleleyo.
Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo eUnited States v. Wong Kim Srk saqinisekisa ukuba ubuzibulo bunabantwana abazalwa eUnited States kungakhathaliseki ubumi babazali babo okanye ubume bokufuduka. Nakuphi na ukuguqulwa kulo mgaqo-siseko osisiseko bekuya kufuna ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko okanye ukutshintshwa okuphawulekayo kwemizekelo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo.
Ukukhuselwa Okulinganayo Nocalucalulo Lwale Mihla
I-Acticom Protection Claus iyaqhubeka ibheniswa kwimiba yamalungelo abantu yale mihla. Amatyala akutshanje aye athetha ngocalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo, ubuni, ubulwelwe, nezinye iimpawu. Iinkundla kufuneka zilungelelanise iminqweno esemthethweni karhulumente ngokuchasene namalungelo abantu okuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho.
Iinkqubo zoqinisekiso zibangele impikiswano enkulu malunga nentsingiselo yokhuseleko olulinganayo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi iinkqubo ezingabonakaliyo zohlanga ziyimfuneko ukucombulula ucalulo oludlulileyo nokukhuthaza iinguqu, ngelixesha abagxeki bephikisa ngelithi nakuphi na ukusetyenziswa kolwahlulo lobuhlanga kuchasene nomgaqo wokulingana kombala okungaqondakaliyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yazama ukuququzelela ngokucokisekileyo uphando lokwenza iinkqubo zokwahlukana ngelixa iqonda ukuba ukwahluka kolwahlulwa kobuhlanga kungenza umdla karhulumente kwiimeko ezilinganiselweyo.
Inkqubo efanelekileyo namalungelo angaphantsi
Imfundiso yenkqubo efunekayo yokuzithethelela ihlala iphikisana, yaye abahlalutyi bathi ivumela abagwebi ukuba banyanzelise amaxabiso abo phantsi kolu tyhilo lomgaqo-siseko. Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi i-Unit Procession Claus Claus kufuneka bakhusele amalungelo asisiseko naxa bengacaciswanga ngokucacileyo, kwaye abafaki-mthetho babenenjongo yokuba ibe luxwebhu oluphilayo olukwaziyo ukuvisisana neemeko ezintsha.
Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo yakutshanje ziye zandisa zaza zafumana ukhuseleko oluncinci lwenkqubo efunekayo, lubonakalisa ukungavumelani okuqhubekayo malunga nomlinganiselo ofanelekileyo wamalungelo angangeni ngokomthetho. Ezi ngxoxo zichaphazela ezinye zezona mpikiswano ziphikisanayo kwibutho labantu baseMerika, kuquka amalungelo okuzala, izigqibo ezipheliswe kubomi, nemiqathango yomgaqo karhulumente wokuziphatha kobuqu.
Ukuhlaziywa Kwe - 14 Kubomi Bamihla Ngemihla
Imfundo Namathuba Alinganayo
Impembelelo yeSinyuso seshumi elinesine kwimfundo ingaphaya kakhulu kweBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo. I-Omedial Protection Claus isetyenziselwa ukucel ’ umngeni iinkqubo zemfundo zobuhlanga, ukuqinisekisa ukufikelela kwemfundo kubafundi abaneziphene, ukukhusela amalungelo abo bafunda ulwimi lwesiNgesi, kunye nokucalucalula isini kwiinkqubo zemfundo. Abafundi namhlanje bayangenelwa kukhuseleko olusemthethweni olunika amathuba alinganayo okufundisa kungakhathaliseki uhlanga, isini, imvelaphi, okanye ubulwelwe.
Ukukhuselwa Kwezobulungisa
Ukuququzelelwa kweBhili yamaLungelo okukhusela amaLungelo ngeSindululo seshumi elinesine siye saguqula isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho eMerika. Abameli ngoku banelungelo lokucebisa, lokukhusela ukungazijongi, ilungelo lokujolisa kumangqina, lokukhusela ukuphangwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, kunye nezinye izikhuseli ezininzi zobugqwirha kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi zikhuseli zinceda ukuqinisekisa ukuvavanywa ngokufanelekileyo nokuthintelwa kokusetyenziswa kakubi kolawulo lukarhulumente.
I-System Claus ifuna ukuba imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho icace kwaye inike isaziso esaneleyo sehambo enqatyisiweyo. Imithetho yamatyala engakwaziyo ukulumkisa abantu ngokufanelekileyo ngokokuziphatha okungekho mthethweni isenokupheliswa njengengekho mthethweni. Lo mgaqo ukhusela abantu ekunyanzelweni komthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni kwaye uqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wezaphuli-mthetho usetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo nangokuthe ngqo.
Uninzi lwabathathi-nxaxheba
Ngoxa uHlomelo lweshumi elinesine lungalenzi ilungelo eliqhelekileyo lokusebenza okanye lokhuseleko lwezoqoqosho, luye lwasetyenziselwa ukucel ’ umngeni izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho zemisebenzi zabaqeshi bakarhulumente. I-Cemetic Protection Claus iyalwalela urhulumente ekwenzeni izigqibo zemisebenzi ezisekelwe kuhlanga, isini, okanye ezinye izigwebo ezirhanelwayo ngaphandle kokugwetyelwa ngokwaneleyo. Zidityaniswe nemithetho yamalungelo abantu edluliselwe phantsi kolawulo lweCandelo lweNkrreant'unitha, olu ncedo luqinisekisa ithuba elilinganayo emsebenzini.
Amalungelo Eentsapho Nokuzihambela Kwabantu
I-System Claus ye-Celsade ikhusela amalungelo asisiseko anxulumene nentsapho kunye nozimele. Abazali banelungelo elisemthethweni lokwenza izigqibo ngendlela abantwana babo abakhuliswe ngayo, kuquka imfundo kunye nokuqeqeshwa ngezonqulo. Abantu ngabanye banelungelo lokutshata nomntu abamkhethileyo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba uluphi uhlanga okanye isini. Ezi zikhuseli zibonakalisa umgaqo wokuba izigqibo ezithile zobuqu zibaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuphazamisa ngaphandle kokuzithethelela.
Ukuthelekisa uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine namanye amalungiselelo omGaqo-siseko
Ulwalamano NeSibheno Samalungelo
IsiHlalisi seshumi elinesine sisebenza njengebhulorho phakathi kweBhili yamaLungelo noorhulumente bakarhulumente. Ngoxa izilungiso zokuqala zokuqala ezilishumi zazisebenza kuphela kwinyathelo lorhulumente, iSimemezelo soMmiselo weshumi elinesine soMthetho kaNondoqo kaClaus sitolikwa ukuquka uninzi lwale migaqo yokukhusela kwisenzo sikarhulumente. Oku kudala inkqubo ebanzi yokhuseleko lwamalungelo esebenza kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente.
Noko ke, asiyiyo yonke imiqathango yeBhili yamaLungelo enziwe. Umthetho wesiThathu Wokwenziwa kweMpanziso awunyanzeliswanga kumajoni ahlala ehlanu, imfuneko enkulu yabachopheli-mthetho yesihlanu, ukuvavanywa koMbethi-mthetho weCandelo loLuntu, nokuhlawulwa kwemali yeSindululo seSebende seSigqibo, kunye nentlawulo yeNkqutyana yokuHlo-mali engafakwanga ngokupheleleyo nxamnye namagunya. Iinkundla zigqibe kwelokuba la malungiselelo, nangona kubalulekile, awanyanzelekanga ukuba anikwe inkululeko yokuba amiselwe koorhulumente ngoLawulo lweshumi elinesine.
Ulwalamano Nohlaziyo Lweshumi elinesithathu Nolweshumi elinesihlanu
IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine sesinye seziHlaziyiso ezintathu zoHlaziyo ezaguqula ngokusisiseko umGaqo-siseko kwiziphumo zeMfazwe Yamakhaya. IsiHlanzi seshumi elinesithathu sabuphelisa ubukhoboka nokubotshwa ngenkani, salungiselela isiseko senkululeko. IsiHlanzi seshumi elinesine sachaza ubumi kunye namalungelo akhuselekileyo. UMthetho ohlaziyiweyo, owagunyaziswa ngowe-1870, wakwalela ukukhanyelwa kwamalungelo okuvota ngenxa yobuhlanga, ibala, okanye imeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka.
Zizonke ezi zindululo zazama ukuseka ulungelelwano olutsha lomGaqo-siseko olusekelwe kulingana nakumalungelo endalo yonke. Ngoxa ukuphunyezwa kwazo kwakungaphelelanga kwaye ngokufuthi kunxunguphaliswe kukuchasana nentiyo egwebayo, zalungiselela inkqubo yomGaqo-siseko yoloyiso lwamalungelo abantu ekugqibeleni kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini.
Indlela IsiHlaliso Seshumi Elinane Esikukhusela Ngayo
Ukukhuselwa Kucalucalulo Loburhulumente
I-Acticome Protection Claus iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakukukuphatha ngokwahlukileyo ngenxa yesizwe, isini, imvelaphi yesizwe, okanye ezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo ngaphandle kokugwetywa ngokwaneleyo. Ukuba ukholelwa ukuba ucalulwe ngokwesiciko sikarhulumente (enokuba usebenza, ufunda, unyanzelisa umthetho, okanye ilungiselelo leenkonzo) elingunobungqina bokuvavanya ucalucalulo enkundleni.
Ukuqinisekisa Iinkqubo Zomthetho Ezifanelekileyo
I-System Claus yeSigqibo sikaClaus iqinisekisa ukuba ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente akwenze ungabi nabomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, kufuneka ilandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo. Oku kuthetha ukuba unelungelo lokuphawula naziphi na izityholo okanye izityholo ozibeka kuwe, ithuba lokuviwa, nesigqibo somenzi wesigqibo ongakhethiyo. Ezi zikhuseliso ziyasebenza kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukumangalelwa kwamakhaya, ukulawulwa, nezinye iimeko apho isenzo sikarhulumente sichaphazela amalungelo akho okanye izilangazelelo zakho.
Ukuqinisekisa Amalungelo Asisiseko
Ngokubandakanya kunye nenkqubo efunekayo, uMphengululo weshumi elinesine ukhusela amalungelo akho asisiseko ekungeneleni kwesizwe. Unelungelo lokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, lokusebenzisa unqulo ngokukhululekileyo, lokungaphandi ngokungekho ngqiqweni, ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, kunye nezinye iinkululeko ezininzi eziyimfuneko. La malungelo awaphelelanga ngokupheleleyo. . .---------8) urhulumente akanakuwalawula xa kuyimfuneko ukulungiselela izilangazelelo zikawonke wonke ezibalulekileyo. Kodwa ke akanakuthintelwa ngaphandle kokuzithethelela.
Ukumisela Ubumi Bakho
Ukuba uzalelwe eUnited States, iSizwe uClaus siqinisekisa ubumi bakho kungakhathaliseki ukuba ngabazali bakho. Oku kukunika ukhuseleko nokuba ngamalungu, kuqinisekisa ukuba awunakuphiwa amalungelo nobumi obusekelwe kumnombo wakho okanye kwimeko yabazali bakho yokufuduka. Ukuba ngummi kukwindawo esisiseko ehambisana namalungelo amaninzi asemthethweni kunye nenkuselo.
Ikamva LoMthetho We - 14 Wokwenziwa Komthetho
Ukucaciswa Okuqhubekayo Nenkqubo Yenkqubo Ye - Evolution
UMthetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine uhlala uyinxalenye ephilayo yomGaqo-siseko wethu, osoloko uchazwa kwaye usetyenziswa kwiimeko ezintsha. Njengoko kuvela iinguqu neembambano ezintsha, inkundla kufuneka igqibe indlela imigaqo yokulungisa esebenza ngayo kwiingxaki zanamhlanje. Imibuzo ephathelele ubumfihlelo bemivo, inkcazelo yemfuza, ubuchule bokuzenzela, nezinye iziphumo zale mihla iza kufuna ukuba iinkundla ziqwalasele indlela ukukhuselwa kweGqibeko leshumi elinesine elinazigwebo zobugcisa namalungiselelo asekuhlaleni.
Ukulungelelanisa Amalungelo Nezilangazelelo zikarhulumente
IMithetho yeZigqibo zeshumi elinesine yoLawulo loMmiselo iza kuqhubeka zilwa noxanduva lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye neemfuno zikarhulumente ezisemthethweni. Kungakanani urhulumente anokulawula ukuthethwa egameni lokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke? Xa urhulumente enokuthi asebenzise iiyantlukwano zobuhlanga ukucombulula ucalucalulo oludlulileyo? Ziziphi iinkqubo ezifunekayo ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe umntu impahla okanye inkululeko? Le mibuzo ayinazimpendulo zilula, kwaye iinkundla kufuneka zilungelelanise imilinganiselo neenjongo eziphikisanayo.
Ukukhusela Ukulingana Kuluntu Olungafaniyo
Njengoko iMelika isiya yahluka-hluka, i-Acimial Protection Claus iza kuqhubeka isenza indima ebalulekileyo ekuqinisekiseni ukuba bonke abantu baphathwa kakuhle kungakhathaliseki imvelaphi yabo. Iintlobo ezintsha zocalulo zingavela, kwaye inkundla ziyakufuna ukufumanisa ukuba bayayichasa kusini na imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko. Isithembiso se-amente sokhuseleko olulinganayo sisafuneka namhlanje njengoko sasinjalo ngo-1868, njengokuba iinkqubo ezingqalileyo zalo mgaqo ziqhubeka zisanda kuvela.
Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi
Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi malunga noMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine, oovimba abaninzi bakhona. Abalawuli bobuzwe banika ukufumaneka kokuguqulelwa kombhalo kwantlandlolo namaxwebhu embali. IChonsitionstion Ancodition[, epapashwe yithala leencwadi leBritha , inika uhlaziyo olunjululiweyo lweNkuhlalo ePhakamileyo yemigaqo-siseko ngamnye. Iziko zomGaqo-siseko wesizwe zibonelela izibonelelo kunye nezibonelelo ezidityaniweyo zolwazi oludityaniweyo zomthetho womthetho.
Iincwadi zamatyala zesikolo kunye neencwadi zomthetho-siseko zinikela ngokucokisekileyo kuhlalutyo lwemfundiso yesiHlaziyo seshumi elinesine. Iimbono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zifumaneka ekuhleni kwaye zinikela ezona ngxelo zinegunya lokuchaza umGaqo-siseko. Abo bafuna intshayelelo efikelelekayo, iincwadi ezininzi ezibhalelwe abaphulaphuli ngokubanzi zichaza imbali kunye nentsingiselo yembali yokulungisa, nokuthabatha inxaxheba kulwimi.
Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho KoMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo We - 14
UMthetho - siseko weshumi elinesine umela enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo kwimbali yomgaqo - siseko waseMerika.
Isithembiso sokulungisa sobumi obulinganayo, inkqubo efunekayo, kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho luhlala lusemgangathweni kulwazi lwaseMerika nakumaxabiso amkelekileyo. Ngoxa umzabalazo wokuzizalisekisa ngokupheleleyo ezi zithembiso uqhubeka, uMmiselo weshumi elinesine unika isiseko somGaqo-siseko semigudu eqhubekayo yokwakha umanyano olugqibeleleyo. Amalungiselelo aso akhusela ngamnye wethu kubomi bethu bemihla ngemihla, ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente usiphatha kakuhle, uhlonela amalungelo ethu asisiseko, kwaye unikela ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho.
Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine asiyonto nje efundiswayo, kodwa lulwazi olubalulekileyo kumntu wonke waseMerika. Utshintsho lulolonga amalungelo ethu, amathuba ethu, kunye nolwalamano lwethu norhulumente. Ngokufunda ngembali, amalungiselelo, kunye nokutolika, sinokuyixabisa ngakumbi inkxaso esinayo size sibe nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwiprojekthi eqhubekayo yedemokhrasi yaseMerika.
Njengoko sijamelene nocelomngeni olutsha kunye namathuba kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesine, ukuHlolwa koMphetho-mda kuya kuqhubeka kusebenza njengesixhobo esibalulekileyo sokukhusela amalungelo abantu nokukhuthaza ukulingana. Imigaqo yayo ebanzi ithambe ngokwaneleyo ukuvumelana neemeko ezitshintshayo ngoxa ihlala isekelwe kumaxabiso angundoqo esidima somntu, okusesikweni, kunye nokusesikweni okulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Ilifa lokulungisa alikho nje ngokwembali.