Yintoni Isigwebo Esingokwasemthethweni?

Ulawulo lomthetho luyingcamango esisiseko echaza igunya lenkundla lokuva ityala, ukukhupha imigaqo ebophelelayo, kunye nokunyanzelisa imigwebo. Ngaphandle kolawulo olufanelekileyo, nasiphi na isigqibo inkundla esenzayo singacelwwa okanye sithathwe njengelize. Eli gama ngokwalo livela kwisiLatini ujuris directio[, ithetha "ukuthetha umthetho," kwaye ijikele kwiinkulungwane ezininzi kwinkqubo entsonkothile yemithetho elawula apho iingxabano zomthetho zisombululwa khona.

I-Jurisdiction isebenza njengendlela yokugcina amasango kwinkqubo yomthetho. Iqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zisebenzisa amandla kuphela kwimicimbi ezigunyaziswe ukuyisingatha, ukukhusela iimbambano phakathi kwamaqumrhu ahlukeneyo ejaji nokukhusela amaqela ekurhuqelweni kwiinkundla ezingenalo unxulumano olusemthethweni kwityala lawo. Kumntu nabani na obandakanyekileyo kwimpikiswano engokwasemthethweni, igunya lokuqonda alingomkhethe ̬ ngumbuzo wokuqala igqwetha ngalinye nomgwebi kufuneka aphendule.

Isizathu Sokuba Ityala Libe Yingxaki Ekuqhubeleni Phambilini Kwasemthethweni

Ukulilungisa ityala enkundleni engalunganga kungaba nemiphumo enzima. Ukuba inkundla ayinalo igunya lombandela okanye amaqela, kufuneka ilicime elo tyala, inyanzele umchasi ukuba aqale kwifolom elungileyo. Oku kuchitha ixesha, imali, kunye nezibonelelo. Okubi nangakumbi, ukuba ummiselo wemiqathango uphelile ngexesha elifanelekileyo elibekwe enkundleni engalunganga, umlahli-mthetho angalahlekelwa nelungelo lokumangalelwa ngokupheleleyo.

Imibuzo ye-Jurisdiadictism ikwadlala indima ephambili kwilixa eliphambili. Abameli basoloko belucela ulwamkelo lolawulo njengomgca wokuqala wokuzikhusela, kwaye abalawuli bakhetha ngenyameko i-focum yabo ukufumana inzuzo ye-procedfo. Imeko efanayo inokuba neziphumo ezahlukileyo kakhulu kuxhomekeka ekubeni iviwe kwinkundla yorhulumente okanye kwelinye ilizwe, okanye kwelinye ilizwe lijongene nelinye. Oku kwenza ukuba igunya libe luhlalutyo olunengqwalaniso olubalulekileyo ukususela kulo mva wokuphakama kwempikiswano.

Inxalenye Eyintloko Yesigwebo

Ukuqonda uhlobo ngalunye lwetyala kubalulekile ukuze kubonwe ukuba yiyiphi inkundla enokuliva ityala.

Isigqibo Sobuqu

Ulawulo lomntu siqu lubhekisela kwigunya lenkundla kubantu okanye kumaqumrhu abandakanyekileyo ekumangalelweni. Inkundla ayinakukhupha umgwebo osisibophelelo kummangalelwa ngaphandle kokuba inegunya lobuqu kulowo ummangalelwa. Oku kukhusela abamangalelwa ekunyanzelweni ukuba bazikhusele kwinkundla ekude okanye enzima abangenalo unxibelelwano olunentsingiselo.

Igunya lomntu linokumiselwa ngeendlela ezininzi:

  • Isivumelwano sommangalelwa: Ummangalelwa angazithoba ngokuzithandela kwigunya lenkundla ngokuvela nokukhusela ityala ngaphandle kokulibamba, okanye ngokuvuma ukulawula kwisivumelwano. Iisivumelwano ezininzi zorhwebo ziquka iirejista ze-fonum-defaults ezichaza ukuba yiyiphi inkundla eza kusingatha iimpikiswano.
  • [[UMTL:0] Inkundla edityanisiweyo okanye egadeni: inegunya lobuqu kubantu abahlala kwimida yabo yengingqi. Kumaziko, oku kuthetha imeko apho inkampani idityaniswe okanye inendawo yayo eyintloko yoshishino.
  • [[FLT:] (1945]), inkundla ingagunyazisa ulawulo oluphezulu lommangalelwa ukuba lowo ummangalelwa unento yokwenza nomgangatho ophezulu wetyala lenkundla ye-U.S. International Shoe Co. v. Washington [1945], inkundla ingagunyazisa ulawulo phezu kommangalelwa-mmangalelwa-mphezulu ukuba unobuncinane obuncinci nobunzima obubodwa buchaza ukuba ukumangalelwa akungqubanisi sithethe seengcamango zokudlala okulungileyo nokusesikweni okubalulekileyo. Lo mgangatho usulungezwa ngamatyala alandelayo, kuquka [[FLT:] i-AFIK: 4. V. iNkuvo yongamele ukuba i-FLD [FLD] [5] [197] [197]
  • Imposiso kunye neNkonzo: ngokomzimba ekhonza ummangalelwa onamaxwebhu asemthethweni ngexa ekho okwethutyana kwingingqi ye-folum ingamisela ulawulo, nangona le mfundiso inemida kwaye iphantsi kwemiqathango yemithetho-siseko.

Ulawulo lomntu siqu lwahlulwe ngokubhekele phaya lube yi ulawulo lwelizwe kunye negunya elichanekileyo. ulawulo ngokubanzi luvumela inkundla ukuba ivakale nayiphi na into echasene nommangalelwa, nokuba kuphi na apho ityala livela khona, kodwa kuphela xa uqhagamshelwano lommangalelwa kwilizwe luqhubekeka kwaye lulungelelaniswe ngendlela yokuba lunikezele ngokwahlukileyo ekhaya. Ulawulo, ngokwahlukileyo, lulinganiselwe ukuba luthiwe lwalo luvele okanye luthelekise noqhagamshelwano lommangalelwa norhulumente.

Umgwebo Oyintloko

Ulawulo lwesihloko lunxulumene negunya lenkundla lokuva uhlobo oluthile lwetyala. Ngokungafaniyo negunya lomntu, elinokulahlwa ukuba iqela aliphumeleli ukubeka ityala, ulawulo lomgangatho wolawulo alunakupheliswa kwaye lungaphakanyiswa nakweliphi na ixesha kukhutshwa ukhupho, kwanasesibheno. Umgwebo onikezelwa yinkundla engenamibandela uphuthile.

Iinkundla zaseUnited States zilungelelaniswe ngeenkqubo ezimbini ezihambisanayo: iinkundla zikarhulumente neenkundla zikarhulumente, nganye inemibandela yayo.

Iinkundla zezemfazwe zinolawulo olulinganiselweyo lwento. Zinokuva kuphela amatyala awela kwenye yeendidi ezimbini:

  • I-Federal Question Jurisdition: Ityala elivela phantsi komGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., imithetho yorhulumente, okanye izivumelwano. Oku kuquka izityholo ezibandakanya amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, imimiselo yorhulumente, nemimiselo. Umbuzo wesizwe mawuvele ebusweni besikhalazo esicelwe kakuhle se-partff.
  • I-Division Jurisdition: Ityala phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo, okanye phakathi kommi welizwe lase-U.S. kunye nololunye uhlanga, apho imali exabanayo ingaphezulu lee-$75,000. Ulawulo lwezizwe ngeendawo luqinisekisa ukuba amaqela angaphandle kwesebe akanyanzelekanga yimkhethe yasekuhlaleni kwiinkundla zelizwe.

Iinkundla zesizwe , ngokwahlukileyo, zinolawulo lwemibandela jikelele. Zingaphulaphula phantse naluphi na uhlobo lwetyala, ngaphandle kokuba umthetho wesizwe unike imvume epheleleyo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Iinkundla zelizwe zisingatha uninzi lweempikiswano zomthetho eUnited States, kuquka umthetho wentsapho, iimpikiswano, izivumelwano, imicimbi yemo yefama, kunye nenkoliso yezolwaphulo-mthetho.

Exp vs. Iququzelo loMcimbi 'uMcimbi'': Kwezinye iindawo, ziinkundla zequmrhu kuphela ezinegunya lokuva ityala. Umzekelo, ugunyazi, ukunyoluka kwamalungelo omntu, kunye namatyala agqithisiweyo zingurhulumente kuphela. Kwezinye iindawo, zombini iinkundla zorhulumente kunye norhulumente zinegunya lokuva uhlobo olunye lwemeko. Oku kwaziwa njengegunya elikhoyo. Xa i-cuntswana likhoyo, ummangalelwa angakhetha ukuba yiyiphi inkundla ezakuyifakela, phantsi kwelungelo lommangalelwa lokususa icala lenkundla yezomthetho.

Isigwebo Senkundla Engaqhelekanga

Ulawulo lwezolawulo lwelizwe luchaza imida yelizwe apho inkundla inokusebenzisa igunya layo. Inkundla nganye isebenza kummandla othile, nokuba yingingqi ekhethekileyo, isithili sokugweba, iphondo, okanye uhlanga lonke. Ulawulo lwenkundla lwelizwe lusikelwe umda ukufikelela kolawulo lwayo olungaphantsi kwepoena, ukunyanzeliswa kwemiyalelo yayo, kunye nomgangatho wemigwebo yayo.

Izinto eziliqela ziphembelela ulawulo lwengingqi:

  • Indawo yeNqanawa: Iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zinegunya kwiziganeko ezenzeka kwingingqi yazo. Ukuba ingozi yemoto yenzeka kwiLos Angeles County, iinkundla zeli lizwe laseKhalifoniya zinegunya lommandla kwiziphumo zolwaphulo-mthetho.
  • Ityala linegunya kumntu ngamnye kunye nezinto ezihlala kwintsimi yakhe. Esi sisiseko solawulo lobuqu ngokubanzi njengoko linxulumene ne-domicile.
  • Imithetho-ebanzi: Uninzi lwamazwe luye lwamisela imimiselo emide ekwandiseni ukufikelela kwemimandla yenkundla zawo ngaphandle kwemimangalelwa eququzelela imisebenzi ethile ekwilizwe, efana nokuqhuba ishishini, ukuphatha itort, okanye ukuba nepropati. Le mithetho mayihambisane nemiqathango yesiseko ebekwe yi-ARCIIIS, ye-GPMP.

Ulawulo lwezolawulo lukwasebenza nakulawulo lwe- lolawulo lwe-rem , apho inkundla isebenzisa igunya phezu kwempahla ebekwe kumhlaba wayo kunokuba ilawule umntu. Oku kuqhelekile kwiimpikiswano ezibandakanya umhlaba, apho igunya lenkundla lisekelwe kwindawo yempahla ngokwayo.

Ukutyholwa

Ukulawula kwenkundla ephakamileyo ligunya lokuhlola nokuhlaziya izigqibo zenkundla engaphantsi. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, ezifumana izibakala zize zisebenzise umthetho kwezo zibakala, iinkundla ezijongene neempazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ezikhoyo ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala ezinokuthi zichaphazele iziphumo.

Imisebenzi engundoqo yokulawula i-Prefellate iquka:

  • Imboniselo yempinda:[ Iinkundla zezicelo zisoloko zihlola imibuzo yomthetho de novo (ntsha), ithetha ukuba azizibekeli mdla kwizigqibo ezisemthethweni zenkundla evavanyiweyo. Noko ke, zihlola izinto ezifunyanisiweyo zento phantsi komgangatho obekelwe ixesha elifutshane, njengo "ophazamisayo" kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni okanye "ubungqina obukwisingqiniso" ekubheno kwezolawulo.
  • Ukujikeleza kwe-Appleance: Isibheno kufuneka sisekelwe kwimpazamo ethile esemthethweni, njengomyalelo ophosakeleyo wabachopheli-tyala, ukuvuma okungafanelekanga okanye ukushiya ubungqina, ukugqwethwa okungachananga komthetho, okanye ukungaguquguquki kwentsingiselo. Izibheno azilothuba lokuphinda uchaze umba okanye ukunikela ubungqina obutsha.
  • Isiqinisekiso sokungaguquguquki: kwiinkqubo ezininzi, iinkundla zezolwaphulo-mthetho ziva kuphela izibheno ezivela kwizahlulelo zokugqibela ezilahla zonke izibhengezo namaqela. Noko ke, kukho iimvume zokufaka isibongozo, ezivumela uhlolo lwemiba ethile enzima phambi kokuba ityala lisombululwe ngokupheleleyo.
  • Icala eliphambili leeNkundla: ulawulo lwezicelo olusebenzayo ngaphakathi kwequmrhu lemigangatho. Kwinkqubo yephondo, izigqibo zeenkundla zesithili zibhencwa kwiinkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno, kwaye izigqibo zeenkundla zesiphaluka zingabukelelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo inenkululeko yokukhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala emaziwamkele.

Inkqubo ye-appellate isebenzisa iinjongo ezininzi: ilungisa iimpazamo, iqinisekisa ukudibana ekutolikeni komthetho, kwaye inika ukhokelo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi nakuluntu olusemthethweni. Ngaphandle kolawulo olulawulayo, ukuphuhliswa komthetho kuya kuba kokungalungelelani nokungaguquguqukiyo.

Ukutyholwa Kumthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe

Ukubekwa ityala kwimimandla yehlabathi jikelele kunzima kakhulu kuba akukho nkundla inye yehlabathi lonke enegunya elinyanzelekileyo kuzo zonke iintlanga nabantu ngabanye. Endaweni yoko, igunya lomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe lilawulwa yimigaqo yolongamo, igalelo kunye nezibophelelo zesivumelwano.

I-Extratritorial Juristicion: Amanye amazwe agxininisa ulawulo lwendlela yokuziphatha eyenzeka ngaphandle kwemida yawo. Umzekelo, iUnited States, iye yasebenzisa imithetho yayo elwa nokuthembeka, imithetho yetyala, kunye nemimiselo echasene nokonakala kwiinkampani zangaphandle kunye nabantu abanezenzo ezineziphumo ezinamandla kuUnited States. I-International Division Cracticts Acts (FCPA) ngumzekelo obalaseleyo wolawulo lokwandiswa kwemithetho, ivumela ukuba abasemagunyeni bamanye amazwe adwe yimibutho e-U.S.

IiNgqungquthela neeNdibano zezizwe ngezizwe: IiNgxelo zingamisela imithetho elawulayo edibanisa amazwe atyikityayo. Ingqungquthela yeHague kuMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ivelise iindibano eziliqela ezithetha ngegunya elikumda onqamlezayo kunye nezorhwebo, kuquka iNgqungquthela yeNkundla yeNkundla yeNkundla kunye neNdibano yeNkundla yeNkundla yeNtlalo. Ezi zixhobo zizimisele ukwenza ukuxela nokuhlisa umngcipheko wokuchasana kwemigwebo kwimiba yezizwe ngezizwe.

IiNkundla zeInternational kunye neTribunals: AmaBhodi anjengeNkundla yezizwe ngezizwe yeJaji (ICJ), iNkundla yeNkantolo ye-Criminal yezizwe ngezizwe (ICC), kunye neenkundla ze-ad hoc ezahlukeneyo zisebenzisa ulawulo kwiintlobo ezithile zeempikiswano. I-ICJ iva ingeva iimpikiswano phakathi kwamagunya avumelaneyo, lo gama i-ICRAC imangalela abantu ngabanye ukutshatyalaliswa kohlanga, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe, ulwaphulo-mthetho oluchasene noluntu. Ezi zizwe ngezizwe zisebenza phantsi kwemithetho yazo, ezisoloko zikhuphikiswa ngokushushu ngamaphondo.

Umgaqo wesizwe (usebenza ngohlanga lwamazwe naphi na apho zivela khona), umgaqo okhuselayo (umthetho osongela ukhuseleko lwesizwe), umgaqo wobuntu owenziweyo (usebenza kakubi kumhlaba wesizwe), kunye nomgaqo wehlabathi (oomnye ulwaphulo-mthetho ombi onokuthi umangalelwe, onjalo ulwaphulo-mthetho oluyingozi nohlanga).

Ucelomngeni Oluqhelekileyo Lokulingelwa

Ilishwa lisoloko liphikiswa, kwaye iimfundiso ezininzi ezisemthethweni zivumela amaqela ukuba acel ’ umngeni igunya lenkundla ukuba live ityala.

Iforum Non Convenie: Le mfundiso ivumela inkundla ukuba ikhuphe ityala ukuba enye iforasi ifanelekile kwaye ilungele amaqela namangqina. Idla ngokusetyenziswa kwiimpikiswano zezizwe ngezizwe apho iziganeko zenzeka khona kwelinye ilizwe kwaye ubungqina kunye namangqina zikhona. Ulwamkelo lwenkundla lwangasese (ukufikelela ekufumaneni ubungqina, iindleko zokufumana amangqina) kunye nezilangazelelo zikawonke-wonke (umdla wokufumana impikiswano, umthwalo kwinkundla).

Ibhaqo kunye neRemand: Kwinkqubo karhulumente wase-U.S., ummangalelwa angasusa ityala kwinkundla yetyala yesizwe ukuya kwinkundla yephondo ukuba inkundla yesizwe ibinokuba negunya lokuqala kwityala. Ngokuchasene noko, ukuba inkundla yesizwe ayinalo igunya, ummangali-mthetho angashukuma abuyele emva kwinkundla yombuso. Ezi ndlela zilawulwa zilawulwa ngomthetho wesigqeba kwaye ziphantsi kwemiqathango eqinileyo.

I-Wariver yeMiba ye Jurisdiction: ulawulo lobuqu lungasuswa. Ukuba ummangalelwa uvela enkundleni kwaye ufaka ipesenti iimfanelo zetyala ngaphandle kokubeka umthetho, bathathwa ukuba bavumelene negunya lenkundla. Ulawulo lwesihloko, noko ke, alunako ukurhoxiswa kwaye lunganyuswa nangaliphi na ixesha, nokuba amaqela ayavuma ukuba likhona elo gunya.

I-'dict' ukusuka kwi Jurisdition: Ezinye izinto kunye nabantu abathile abakhuselekile kwiinkundla zangaphandle. Ukukhusela kolawulo oluphezulu kukhusela amazwe angaphandle ekumangalelweni kwiinkundla zelizwe, ngaphandle komsebenzi worhwebo. Ngokunjalo ukukhusela komkhosi womkhosi wesizwe kunye neentsapho zabo kwigunya lamakhaya. Ezi zijoliswe kulawulwa ngumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe kunye nemithetho yamakhaya enjenge-Immunies Engaveli (SIA) Act (ES) eUnited States.

Indlela Yokugqiba Ukuba Yiyiphi Inkundla Etyholweyo

Ukumisa inkundla efanelekileyo etyala ifuna uhlalutyo olucwangcisiweyo. Ukuqalisa ngomthetho wemibandela: ngaba ityala livela phantsi komthetho wesizwe okanye libandakanya ukwahluka-hluka kobumi? Ukuba kunjalo, inkundla yesizwe iyafumaneka. Ukuba akunjalo, inkundla karhulumente yeyona ifanelekileyo. Amanye amatyala angafaneleka kuzo zombini ezi nkqubo, enika umlandu ukhetho lweforum.

Ngokulandelayo, qwalasela igunya lobuqu. Ingaba inkundla ingagunyazisa ummangalelwa ngokusekelwe kwimo yokunxibelelana kwabo ne-folum? Ukuba ummangalelwa uhlala kwi-folum, igunya lolawulo licacile. Ukuba ummangalelwa uvela kwilizwe, qwalasela ukuba unamava alinganiselweyo afanele ulawulo oluthile okanye igunya jikelele. Ukuba akunjalo, eli tyala alinakuqhubeka kuloo nkundla.

Ekugqibeleni, qwalasela imiqathango yendawo. Ingaba kukho imithetho efuna ukuba ityala libekwe kwiphondo elithile okanye kwisithili esithile ngaphakathi kwenkqubo yenkundla? UVenue wahlukile kulawulo nakwindawo elungele ukuvavanywa. Nokuba ulawulo lukhona, indawo engafanelekanga yokubekwa kwetyala ingenza ukuba ithunyelwe okanye igxothwe.

Izixhobo eziluncedo ezinjenge webhsayithi ye- yase-U.S. zinika ulwazi ngemithetho yequmrhu lorhulumente kunye neendawo. Kwimiba yombuso ecacileyo, kukhangelwa kwiZiko lesizwe leNkundla yeBhunga yoRhulumente [[[FLT:] 3] lunganceda amaqela aqonde ukwakhiwa kunye nolawulo lwenkundla. Attorneys rhoqo uhlalutya ulawulo lwemiba esebenzisa [[FLT:]] LGEB" Iziko lolwazi lwendawo yokwalawulwayo [[[FLTLT:5]] njengendawo yokuqala, kwaye axhomekeke kwimithetho efana nemithetho ye-Provial Procture Imentivectivesssssssss.

Ukutyholwa Kwixesha Lamanani

I-intanethi ivelise iingxaki ezintsha. Xa i-website okanye inkonzo ye-intanethi ifikelela abasebenzisi kwiphondo nakumazwe ngamazwe, apho inkundla inokulawula khona kakuhle? Iinkundla ze-U.S. zivelise indlela yokuhamba. Ii-website ezihambayo ezingezilo nje ulwazi olungenagunya. Iiwebhsayithi ezisebenzisanayo apho abasebenzisi banokuthenga okanye batshintshiselene ulwazi zinokuxhasa igunya ukuba ummangalelwa ulawula imisebenzi yakhe kwimo ye-faum.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. yathetha oku kwiimeko ezifana ne Walden v. Fiore (2014, ebambe ukuba uqhagamshelwano lommangalelwa ne-alum state i-#812; asiyonto i-Proquant's qhakamshelwano no-'mnts'ant's's's/#812; ngumbandela wolawulo lobuqu. Kumongo wezizwe ngezizwe, i-Uniral Tech Divice Reglation (GDPR) ivule ulawulo lwemithetho ye-EUS kumaqela angaphandle kwe-EUS apho ukhuseleko luqhuba khona ugcino-data lwabahlalizomthetho, idala imodeli entsha kulawulo lwendawo ye-data kusuka kwindawo yogcino-lwazi kulwazi.

Le nkqubela ithetha ukuba amashishini nabantu ngabanye kufuneka baqonde ngakumbi ukuba imisebenzi yabo ye-intanethi inokubakhokelela kwinkqubo esemthethweni. Intengiselwano enye ye-e-commerce okanye indawo yesebe loluntu ingadala ukuchanabeka kwemithetho kumazwe nakumazwe amaninzi.

Isiphelo

Ulawulo lwasemthethweni asingobuchule nje obuqhelekileyo ̬ sisiseko apho inkqubo yomthetho iphela ihleli khona. Imisela ukuba yeyiphi inkundla enokuva ityala, yiyiphi imithetho esebenzayo, nokuba ngaba umgwebo uza kunyanzeleka. Ukuqonda iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zolawulo, kuquka ezobuqu, umcimbi, imibandela, indawo, kunye ne-appellate, kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqhuba inkqubo esemthethweni, nokuba ngummangalelwa, ummeli, igqwetha, okanye umqwalaseli onomdla.

Imiba yemibuzo ye-Julistication iphakama kuyo yonke imimandla yomthetho, ukusuka kwiimbambano zentsapho kunye nezivumelwano zoshishino kumalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke. Njengoko urhwebo lwamanani luqhubeka luhambelana kwaye urhwebo lwamanani luqhubeka lukhula, imithetho yolawulo iza kuqhubeka iguquka. Ukuhlala wazi ngezi nguqu kubaluleke kakhulu ekukhuseleni amalungelo asemthethweni nokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kulawulwa kakuhle nangempumelelo kwi-forum.