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Ukuqonda Ukwahlulwa Kwegunya Kurhulumente WaseMerika
I-United States isebenza phantsi kwenkqubo ekhethekileyo yolawulo eyaziwa ngokuba yi-songalism, apho igunya lahlulwe phakathi korhulumente wesizwe ophakathi norhulumente ongomnye. Esi sakhiwo sibini sidala isiseko esintsonkothileyo kodwa esinempumelelo sokulawula ilizwe elinabantu abahlukeneyo abazizigidi ezingama-330 esasazwe kumaphondo angama-50. Ukuqonda umahluko phakathi kolawulo lwamazwe norhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela enziwe ngayo imithetho, indlela esetyenziswa ngayo, nendlela abemi abasebenzisana ngayo namanqanaba awahlukeneyo karhulumente kubomi babo bemihla ngemihla.
Ingcamango yolawulo loburhulumente yacetyiswa ngocoselelo ngabaseki boMgaqo-siseko abaQaqeshiweyo njengolwahlulelwano phakathi kwabo bafuna urhulumente onamandla onamandla nabo babesoyika amandla aphakamileyo. Le nkqubo ivumela umanyano lwesizwe kwimicimbi enzima nenkululeko yoluntu kwimicimbi eyahlukayo ngokwemimandla, inkcubeko, kunye neemfuno zoluntu. Isiphumo sikukulungelelana ngamandla okuye kwavela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, ukuqhelanisa neemeko eziguqukayo ngoxa kugcinwa imigaqo esisiseko yesiseko.
Urhulumente woManyano: Igunya lesiZwe neeNtsebenziswano
Urhulumente wesizwe usebenza njengegunya eliphakamileyo elilawula iUnited States iyonke, esebenzisa amagunya adweliswe ngqo kumGaqo-siseko. La magunya, adla ngokubizwa ngokuba "ngamagunya azimeleyo" okanye "amandla alawulayo," aye alinganiselwa ngabom ukunqanda uhlobo lobuzwilakhe amaqela amatshane ajongene nalo phantsi kolawulo lweBritane. Noko ke, kumgangatho wawo ochaziweyo, urhulumente wesizwe ugunya elikhulu kwimicimbi echaphazela uhlanga lonke.
Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samandla oManyano
UMgaqo-siseko unika urhulumente okhethekileyo ngeGatya I, iCandelo 8, elichaza igunya leNgqungquthela. La mandla aquka ukukwazi ukulawula urhwebo phakathi kwamazwe, imali, ukusungula ii-ofisi zeposi, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, ukuphakamisa nokuxhasa imikhosi, kwaye wenze yonke imithetho iyimfuneko kwaye ifaneleke ekuphumezeni amagunya awo omgaqo-siseko. Eli binzana lokugqibela, elaziwa ngokuba yi-"Necesary and Divironment Claus" okanye "Elasticius Claus," liye lachazwa ngokubanziswe kabanzi, livumela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba andise ufike kwimimandla engakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko.
ISupremacle, efunyenwe kwiGatya lesi-4 loMgaqo-siseko, iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente uthatha indawo yokuqala kunomthetho karhulumente xa kukho ukungavisisani phakathi kwezi zinto zimbini. Lo mgaqo uqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo-nkqubo yesizwe inokusetyenziswa ngokulinganayo kuwo onke amazwe, uthintele ukusetyenziswa kwemigaqo ephikisanayo enokuthi ithobe izilangazelelo zesizwe okanye ibangele ukudideka kwabemi namashishini asebenza kwiingingqi zikarhulumente.
Ukhuselo lwesizwe nemisebenzi yomkhosi
Enye yeembopheleleko ezingundoqo zikarhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kukukhusela uhlanga kwizisongelo zamanye amazwe kunye nokugcina umkhosi ukulungele. ISebe lokhuselo longamela onke amasebe emikhosi exhobileyo, kuquka umkhosi womkhosi, uMkhosi woMkhosi woMkhosi woMkhosi woMkhosi woMkhosi, uMkhosi woMkhosi woMkhosi woLwandle, kunye noMkhosi weSixeko we-Asscrapine. UMongameli usebenza njengoMphathi-iNkulu womkhosi, ngoxa iBhunga liphethe amandla okuvakalisa imfazwe kunye nenkxaso efanelekileyo yemisebenzi yokukhusela.
Ukhuseleko lwesizwe ludlulela ngaphaya komsebenzi wesithethe womkhosi ukuquka ukuhlanganisana ngobulumko, ngekhompyutha, kunye nemigudu yokulwa nezobuphekula. Izicelo ezifana ne-Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, kunye neSebe loKhuseleko lweHomeland ukuze kubonwe kwaye kuphenjelelwe izisongelo ngaphambi kokuba kusekwe inkxwaleko kubemi baseMerika okanye izilangazelelo zabo. Urhulumente ugcina izivumelwano zeqhinga nezinye iintlanga ngezivumelwano ezifana neNATO kunye nezokhuselo lwezikomputha ezinceda ukuqinisekisa ukuzinza komhlaba wonke.
Inkqubo yaMany ’ Amazwe Nonxulumano Lwezizwe Ngezizwe
Urhulumente wesizwe unegunya elipheleleyo kwiinkqubo zamanye amazwe, unxibelelwano, kunye nolwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe. ISebe leLizwe, elikhokelwa nguNobhala weSizwe, lilawula ulwalamano olumanyeneyo namazwe amalunga nama-200 ehlabathini jikelele. Oku kuquka ukudibanisa izivumelwano, ukuthuma izigqeba zamazwe angaphandle, nokumela izilangazelelo zeMerika kwimibutho yezizwe ngezizwe enjengeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo, iWorld Trade Organization, neWorld Health Organization.
Inkqubo yorhwebo ilawulwa yigunya likarhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano zorhwebo ze-United States Trade Decare Aptions ezinokuwuchaphazela ngokuphawulekayo uqoqosho lwaseMelika. Ezi zivumelwano zichaphazela yonke into kusukela kwizinto zokurhweba ngaphandle ukuya kwimisebenzi yokulima, kwaye zifuna ukulungelelanisa izilangazelelo zamakhaya kunye nentsebenziswano yezizwe ngezizwe. Urhulumente wengingqi ukwalawula iinkqubo zoncedo lwamazwe angaphandle, iimvume zezoqoqosho, nezinye izixhobo zempembelelo yezizwe ngezizwe ezinceda ukuqhubekisela phambili iinjongo zenjongo zeqhinga laseMerika.
Ushenxiso kunye noLawulo loMda
Inkqubo yohlaziyo ingumsebenzi wesizwe kuphela, elawulwa ngokuyintloko ngeSebe loKhuselo lwaMakhaya kunye namaqumrhu alo ayinxalenye, kuquka i-Immigration kunye neeNkonzo zoHlaliso-mali, i-Immigration kunye neCustom kunye neSikhuseli soMdatha. Urhulumente wesizwe umisela ukuba ngubani onokungena kweli lizwe, phantsi kweemeko, kwaye ixesha elingakanani.
Ukhuseleko lomda lubandakanya ukukhusela amawaka eekhilomitha zomhlaba kunye nemida yaselwandle, ukuxilonga izigidi zabahambi kumazibuko okungena kuwo, nokuthintela ukufuduka nokurhwebelana okungekho mthethweni. Urhulumente wengingqi ungenisa amawaka ezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka kwimida, abasebenzi, kunye nobugcisa bokulondoloza ukuma komda wesizwe ngoxa usenza urhwebo olusemthethweni kunye nohambo oluyingenelo kuqoqosho.
Urhwebo lwehlabathi
IClaus yezorhwebo inika iNkqutyana yokulawula urhwebo phakathi kwamazwe namazwe asemzini. Eli gunya liye lachazwa ngokubanzi ukugubungela imisebenzi emininzi yezoqoqosho, ukususela ekuveliseni nasekulimeni ukuya ekubhankini nasekunxibelelaneni ngekhompyutha. Amasebe omanyano afana neFederal Trade Commission kunye ne-Secturalies kunye neKhomishoni ye-Exchange amisela imimiselo elungiselelwe ukukhuthaza ukhuphiswano olufanelekileyo, ukukhusela abathengi, nokugcina uzinzo lwemarike.
Iinkqubo zokuhamba ezinqumla iintambo zikarhulumente ziwela phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente, kuquka ulawulo lwelizwe, uloliwe, iinqwelo-moya, kunye noshishino ngeenqanawa. ISebe lezothutho limisela imilinganiselo yokhuseleko, ukunikezela ngemali ukwenzela imisebenzi yezibonelelo, kunye nokulungelelanisa iinkqubo eziqinisekisa ukuhamba kakuhle kwabantu nezinto ezikhoyo kulo lonke elo lizwe. ULawulo lweFederal Aviation Adminity lulawula zonke iinkalo zenqwelo-moya yoluntu, ngelixa umkhosi weFederal Railrand Administration wolawulo lwezolongam lokhuseleko nophuhliso
Inkqubo yezeMali kunye neenkqubo zeMali
Urhulumente wesizwe unegunya elipheleleyo lokunyoba imali nokulawula ixabiso layo, amandla asetyenziswa kwiNkqubo yeSiqithi soManyano kunye neSebe leMongo. IDederal Reserve, esoloko ibizwa ngokuba yi-"Fed," isebenza njengebhanki esembindini welizwe, ilawula inkqubo yemali ukukhuthaza umsebenzi omkhulu, amaxabiso athe tyaba, kunye nenzala ephakathi kwithuba elide. Ngezixhobo ezifana nesantya senzala kunye nemisebenzi yokuvula yentengiso, iimpembelelo zezoqoqosho kwilizwe lonke.
ISebe lezezimali lilawula imali yesebe, liqokelela irhafu ngeNkonzo yeNguqulo Yangaphakathi, livelisa imali neengqekembe nge-ofisi yoMbutho Woshicilelo noLocandelo kunye neNtlango ye-U. kwaye lilawula amatyala esizwe. Le misebenzi ibaluleke kakhulu ekulondolozeni uzinzo lwezoqoqosho nokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente angaxhasa imisebenzi yakhe neemfuno. Imimiselo yebhanki yoManyano-mali, enyanzelwa ngamaziko afana ne-ofisi ye-Compraller of the Lampleance neFederant Deposit Iscurectory, ukhuseleko-mali kunye nokhuseleko-mali olunoncedo
Iinkqubo zoKhuseleko loLuntu neeNkqutyana
Urhulumente wesizwe unika iinkqubo eziliqela eziphambili ezinika izigidi zabantu baseMerika ukhuseleko lwemali. Ukhuseleko loluntu, olwamiselwa ngo-1935, lunika umhlala-phantsi, ukukhubazeka, kunye neingenelo zokusinda kwiziphumo zabasebenzi abafanelekileyo kunye neentsapho zabo. IMedicare inika i-inshorensi yempilo kumaMerika aneminyaka engama-65 nangaphezulu, kunye nabancinane abathile abakhubazekileyo. Ezi nkqubo zixhaswa ngerhafu zerhafu kwaye zimele iindleko ezinkulu kuqingqo-mali lwemali karhulumente.
Ezinye iinkqubo eziluncedo ze-Somertalial Security Indicess Infectorys encinane yabantu abalupheleyo nabakhubazekileyo, iingenelo zamava anikelwa ngeSebe leMicimbi ye-Veterans, kunye nokusebenzisana kwe-inshorensi yokungabikho komsebenzi neenkqubo zikarhulumente. Urhulumente wesizwe ukwalawula i-Social Nutrition Application Program, eyaziwa ngokuba zizitembu zokutya, ezinceda iintsapho ezifumana ukutya okuncinane zifumane ukutya okwaneleyo.
Ukunyanzeliswa Komthetho Omanyeneyo Nokusesikweni
Ngoxa umthetho omninzi usebenza kumgangatho wesizwe nowasekuhlaleni, urhulumente ugcina abameli bomthetho bakhe bezama ukusingatha ulwaphulo-mthetho olubandakanya izinto zikarhulumente, okanye ukuwa phantsi kwemimiselo ethile karhulumente. ISebe leSebe le-Federal Bureau of Investigation lisebenza njengeliphambili kwisebe lobuProfesi, ukusingatha amatyala abandakanya ubugrogrisi, ulwaphulo-mthetho kawonke-wonke, kunye nokuphulwa komthetho wobugqeba. IDrugragn-ntergy igxininisa ekulweni nokuthengiswa kweziyobisi kunye nemibutho esasazasaza kumazwe amaninzi kunye nemida yezizwe ngezizwe.
Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo, ekhokelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ichaza umthetho wesizwe kunye nomGaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zoManyano zinegunya kumatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe, iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe, amatyala abandakanya oorhulumente bamanye amazwe okanye oorhulumente boonozakuzaku, neminye imicimbi echazwe kumGaqo-siseko. ISebe lezeMithetho-siseko, elikhokelwa nguMphathi-mikhosi, limela iUnited States kwimicimbi engokwasemthethweni kwaye linika icebiso elingokwasemthethweni kuMongameli nakumasebe aphetheyo.
Oorhulumente: Igunya lengingqi noLawulo lwengingqi
State governments possess what are known as "reserved powers" under the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, which states that powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or to the people. This gives states considerable autonomy to govern according to the needs and preferences of their residents, resulting in significant variation in laws, policies, and services across the 50 states.
Imisebenzi yesakhelo somGaqo-siseko weRhulumente
Urhulumente ngamnye usebenza phantsi komgaqo-siseko wakhe, omisa isakhiwo sikarhulumente kwaye uchaza amagunya kunye nemiqathango yamagosa karhulumente. Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe udla ngokuthatha ixesha elide kwaye ube nenkcukacha ezininzi kune-omGaqo-siseko wesizwe, ngokufuthi uthetha ngeendawo ezithile zemigaqo-nkqubo kwaye kuquka amalungiselelo abonisa imbali namaxabiso akhethekileyo esizwe ngasinye. Le mimiselo ingatshintshwa ngeenkqubo ezahlukeneyo, eziquka ukuvunywa kwemithetho kunye nokuvota.
Njengorhulumente wesizwe, uninzi lwamazwe alungelelanisa oorhulumente bawo kumasebe amathathu: abaphathi-mthetho, kunye nezomthetho. Irhuluneli isebenza njengentloko yesebe, izindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zidala imithetho karhulumente, kwaye iinkundla zikarhulumente zichaza loo mithetho kunye neempikiswano zesifungo. Noko ke, izakhiwo namandla akhethekileyo ala masebe ayahluka kakhulu ngokwemeko-bume, namanye amaphondo anezindlu zowiso-mthetho zexesha elithile ngoxa amanye egcina abenzi bemithetho abaqeqeshi bexesha elipheleleyo.
Imfundo: Imbopheleleko Ephambili Karhulumente
Mhlawumbi imfundo yeyona mbopheleleko ibalulekileyo yoorhulumente bakarhulumente, esebenzisa eyona nxalenye inkulu yoqingqo-mali karhulumente. Amazwe aseka imigangatho yemfundo, amisela iimfuno zokufundisa, amisela imilinganiselo yokufundisa, anike imigaqo yogcino-lwazi, anike inkxaso-mali kwimimandla yemfundo yasekuhlaleni. Iikomiti zemfundo kunye namasebe emfundo ajonge ukuphunyezwa kwemigaqo-nkqubo yemfundo kwaye aqinisekisa ukuhambelana neemfuno zikarhulumente kunye norhulumente.
Kwakhona amarhulumente alawula iinkqubo zemfundo ephakamileyo kawonke wonke, kuquka iiyunivesithi zikarhulumente, iikholeji zentlalo, nezikolo zobugcisa. La masebe anika amathuba anokufikeleleka okufundisa izigidi zabafundi kwaye enza uphando oluyingenelo kumazwe azo nakumazwe. Urhulumente umisela iinkqubo zezemfundo, iminikelo yemali, kunye nokumisela iikomiti ezilawulayo ezi zikomyuziyam. Ukufaneleka nokufikelela kwemfundo kawonke-wonke kuyahluka kakhulu kuwo onke amazwe, ebonisa ezona zinto zibalulekileyo, oovimba, kunye neentanda-bulumko zezobupolitika.
Ukhuseleko Loluntu Nomthetho
Amazwe anembopheleleko eyintloko yokulondoloza ukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke nokumisa imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Amapolisa aseburhulumenteni okanye amaziko ajikeleza kwiindlela ezinde zolwandle amisa imithetho yeetrafiki kwaye ahlola ulwaphulo-mthetho kwimicimbi yorhulumente nakwiindlela ezisendleleni. Kwakhona achaza izityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezininzi ngemithetho yawo yesohlwayo, ngokumisela izigwebo zokwaphula umthetho, nokusebenzisa izibonelelo zokulungisa ukuvalela abagwebi abagwebi. Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho abekwe kwiinkundla zikarhulumente phantsi komthetho, kunye namatyala angoorhulumente amela icandelo elincinane kuphela lamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho.
Amazwe alawula imisebenzi kunye nemisetyenzana ngokulungiselela iimfuno zokukhusela impilo yoluntu kunye nokhuseleko. Oku kuquka ukuhlahlela koogqirha, obongikazi, amagqwetha, abafundisi-mthetho, iintsebenziswano, iingcali zendalo, kunye neminye imisebenzi emininzi.
Izakhiwo Zezithuthi
Ngeli xesha urhulumente worhulumente ejonge iinkqubo zokuthutha eziphakathi kwelizwe, amarhulumente elawula uninzi lweendlela, iibhulorho, kunye neenkqubo zothutho zikawonke-wonke kwimida yawo. Amasebe karhulumente ezothutho, ukwakha, nokugcina uhola woorhulumente, asebenzisana noorhulumente basekuhlaleni kwimisebenzi yezothutho, kwaye anika inkxaso-mali yezothutho ehamba ngamaqumrhu karhulumente. Amazwe akwalawula ukubhaliswa kwezithuthi, ukubhaliswa kwezithuthi, kunye nemithetho yezithuthi, nangona ezi zinto ziye zahambela phambili kumazwe ahlukene namaziko orhulumente.
Amazwe amaninzi asebenzisa okanye ajonge iinkqubo zothutho lukawonke-wonke, kuquka izitimela ezihamba nabantu, iibhasi kunye neenkonzo zowezo. Ezi nkqubo zibalulekile ekunciphiseni ukuxinana kweemoto, ekunikeni abangenazo iinqwelo-mafutha izithuthi, nasekuxhaseni inkqubela yezoqoqosho. Amazwe akwalawula izikhululo zenqwelo-moya ezingekho phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente kwaye alawula izithuthi zezorhwebo ezihambayo, kuquka iilori neeteksi.
ISebe lezeMpilo neleMisebenzi
Amazwe anendima ephambili ekudluliseleni impilo kunye neenkonzo zabantu kubemi bawo. Amasebe ezempilo aseburhulumenteni ahlola ukuqhambuka kwezifo, ahlola iivenkile zokutyela namaziko okutya, alawula iinkqubo zonyango, azalisekise iinkqubo zoluntu ezithetha ngemibandela enjengokugonywa, impilo yoomama, kunye nokuthintelwa kwezifo ezingapheliyo.
IMedicaid, inkqubo ye-inshorensi yezempilo yabantu abafumana imali ephantsi, ixhaswa ngokumanyeneyo ngurhulumente worhulumente norhulumente kodwa ilawulwa ngamaphondo. Urhulumente ngamnye uyila inkqubo yakhe yeMedicaid ngaphakathi kwemigaqo karhulumente, emisela iimfuno zokungalingani, iinkonzo ezigqunyiweyo, kunye nemali ehlawulwayo yabanikezeli. Oku kuphumela kwintlawulo ephawulekayo kumaphondo aqengqelekayo, ngamanye amazwe anika iingenelo ezibonelelo zobuntu obubanzi ngoxa amanye egcina iinkqubo ezingqongqo ngakumbi.
Amaziko aseburhulumenteni ahlola iingxelo zokuxhatshazwa kwabantwana nokungakhathalelwa kweentsapho, kuquka iinkonzo zentlalo-ntle yabantwana, ukunyanyekelwa kwabantwana, kunye neenkqubo zabantu abaneziphene zokukhula.
Ubuncwane Bemvelo Nokhuseleko Lokusingqongileyo
Amazwe alawula ubuncwane bendalo kwimida yawo, kuquka amahlathi, izimbiwa, ubuncwane bamanzi kunye nezilwanyana zasendle. Amasebe karhulumente avumela ukukhutshwa kobuncwane, ukulawulwa nokuzingela, ukulawulwa kweepaki neendawo zokuzonwabisa, nokusetyenziswa kokulungelelanisa inkqubela yezoqoqosho nokulondolozwa kwemekobume. Amalungelo amanzi abaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kumazwe amaninzi, ingakumbi kwimimandla eyinkqantosi yaseNtshona, apho amazwe aye avelisa iinkqubo ezintsonkothileyo zokuvelisa amanzi afumaneka kwiimfuno ezithelekisa abantu abasebenzisa imidlalo ekhuphithanayo.
Ukhuseleko lwemekobume lubandakanya amagunya karhulumente kunye norhulumente, kodwa urhulumente usoloko emisela kwaye enyanzelisa imimiselo yemekobume kumaziko awo. Amasebe emekobume ajonge ukumgangatho womoya namanzi, avumela imithombo yoshishino, ajonge ukulahlwa kwenkunkuma, aze aphendule kwiimeko-bume ezifana nokuchitheka kwemichiza. Amanye amazwe aye amkela imilinganiselo yemekobume engaphaya kweemfuno zikarhulumente, ebonisa ezona zinto zibalulekileyo kwimekobume okanye iimeko zasekuhlaleni ezikhethekileyo.
Ukhetho nokusebenza
Amazwe anembopheleleko ephambili yokuqhuba unyulo, kwanee-ofisi zikarhulumente ezifana noMongameli kunye neMbutho. Ama-ofisi amisela iinkqubo zokuvota, ukuseka iindawo zokuvota, ukuyila iivoti, nokubala iivoti. Le nkqubo ilungelelanisiweyo ivumela amazwe avumela ukulungiselela iinkqubo zonyulo kwiimfuno kunye nezinto ezikhethwayo zasekuhlaleni, kodwa ikwadala umahluko ekufumaneni uvoteko kunye neenkqubo zelizwe. EUnited States igqiba ukuba ingaba inikela kusini na ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, ukuvota, ukubhalisa okungoko kusuku olunye, kunye neminye imithetho echaphazela indlela abemi ababandakanye ngayo kwidemo-demokhrasi.
Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zesizwe zizoba imida yezihlalo zorhulumente nezezizwe, inkqubo eyaziwa njenge-redifice eyenzeka rhoqo emva kweminyaka elishumi emva kokuba abantu bebhalile. Le nkqubo inokuba nempembelelo ephawulekayo kwiziphumo zonyulo kwaye iye yaqalisa ukuphikisana ngakumbi njengoko ubugcisa bokuzoba isenza ukuba kubekho iikhomishini ezizimeleyo zokusingatha ukusetyenziswa kwemida yesithili. Amanye amazwe aye amisela iikhomishini ezizimeleyo zokunciphisa ukusetyenziswa kwemida yephondo.
Amagunya akhoyo: Iimbopheleleko zomanyano ezabelwenayo nezoRhulumente
Imisebenzi emininzi karhulumente ibandakanya amagunya karhulumente norhulumente asebenza kunye, maxa wambi ngentsebenziswano nangamanye amaxesha exakeka. La mandla akhoyo adala inkqubo entsonkothileyo efuna umanyano, ingxubusho, kunye nesigqibo sengxabano ngamaxesha athile kwiinkundla. Ukuqonda ezi mbopheleleko zokwabelana kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni indlela imigaqo ephunyezwe ngayo ngokwenene nendlela abemi abafumana ngayo iinkonzo zikarhulumente.
Irhafu nengeniso
Oorhulumente borhulumente kunye noorhulumente banegunya lokuhlawula irhafu yelevy, okuphumela kwinkqubo entsonkothileyo yerhafu echaphazela abantu ngabanye namashishini ngamanqanaba amaninzi. Urhulumente uxhomekeke ngokuyintloko kwirhafu yengeniso, ukuhlawula irhafu eqeshiweyo, nerhafu engoorhulumente ukuxhasa imisebenzi yabo. Amazwe asebenzisa intluthatho yengeniso ezahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka iirhafu zerhafu, iirhafu zempahla, kunye nokukhupha iirhafu kwiimpahla ezithile ezifana nepetroli, utywala, kunye necuba. Amanye amazwe akahlawulwa yirhafu, kunoxhomekeka kwirhafu yerhafu nezinye ingeniso, ngoxa amanye exhomekeke kwirhafu ehlawulwa kakhulu.
Le nkqubo yerhafu intsonkothileyo ingadala ukuntsonkotha kwemibini yerhafu, emele ithobele yomibini imithetho yerhafu karhulumente neyaseluntwini esenokuba nemithetho eyahlukeneyo yezothe, iityala, kunye neemfuno zokunika. Noko ke, ikwanika omabini amanqanaba karhulumente ngoovimba abafunekayo ukuzalisekisa iimbopheleleko zawo. Inkqubo yerhafu yomanyano ingaphembelela ingeniso yorhulumente, kwaye ngokuchasene noko, ifuna ukulungelelanisa ukuphepha iziphumo ezingacwangciswanga. Umzekelo, utshintsho kwiinkcithotho yerhafu yerhafu lungachaphazela ukuqokelelwa kwerhafu karhulumente okusekelwe kwimigaqo yawo yerhafu yemali enikwe yimali karhulumente.
Ukunyanzeliswa Komthetho Nokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho
Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kusebenza kumgangatho worhulumente, wesizwe, nowasekuhlaleni, kunye nomgangatho ngamnye onemithetho eyahlukeneyo kodwa ngamanye amaxesha elungelelanisiweyo. Amasebe oManyano ahlola ukwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente, ukunyanzelwa kwamapolisa, kunye namasebe asekuhlaleni asingatha imisebenzi emininzi yonyanzelo-mthetho wemini yonke. La masebe asoloko esebenzisana kwimikhosi esebenzayo esingatha imicimbi efana nokuthengiswa kweziyobisi, ugonyamelo lwamaqela, kunye nobugrogrisi obunqumla imida yolawulo.
Inkqubo yomthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho ibandakanya intsebenziswano phakathi kwamagunya karhulumente kunye namagunya aseburhulumenteni afana nokusabelana ngolwazi, ukusaba, kunye neenkonzo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Urhulumente wengingqi unika inkxaso kurhulumente nakumasebe alawula umthetho wasekuhlaleni ngokunika iinkqubo ezixhasa ukuthengwa kwezixhobo, uqeqesho, kunye namanyathelo akhethekileyo. Ii-data zogcino-lwazi olufana neNational Crime Information Center kunye ne-data yeminwe ye-FBI zisebenza njengovimba-ooomasebe abagcini-mthetho kuzo zonke imigangatho.
Noko ke, kungavela inkxwaleko xa imithetho karhulumente neyorhulumente ingqubana, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezifana nomthetho wombamba, apho amanye amarhulumente aye asebenzisa ngokusemthethweni ukusebenzisa okungavumelekanga phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Ukunyanzeliswa kolawulo lokwahlukana namazwe kuye kwayindawo ethanda ukulwa, kunye nemimandla ethintela intsebenziswano yawo namagunya alawula ukufuduka korhulumente ngoxa amanye encedisa ngokukhutheleyo imigudu yolawulo.
Ukubuyiselwa nokukhuselwa kokusingqongileyo
Ukhuseleko lwemekobume lubandakanya intsebenziswano enkulu phakathi koorhulumente besizwe naborhulumente. I-Evironmental Protection Agency imisela imilinganiselo yesizwe yomgangatho womoya namanzi, ilawula inkunkuma eyingozi, inyanzelisa imithetho yemekobume. Noko ke, amatyala adla ngokusebenzisa le migaqo karhulumente kwaye asenokufumana iimfuno ezithe tye ngokusekelwe kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni nezinto eziphambili. Amazwe amaninzi aye afumana amathunye e-EPA ukuze alawule iinkqubo zemekobume yentlalo kwimida yawo, ephantsi kolawulo lwezwe.
Inkqubo yokutshintsha kwemozulu ibonisa ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho entsonkothileyo phakathi kwegunya lemekobume nelorhulumente. Ngoxa urhulumente wengingqi eye wasebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokulungisa ukukhutshwa kwegesi eshushu ngokuxhomekeke kulawulo lwamandla, amanye amazwe aye ahambela phambili ngezawo iinjongo zemozulu, kuquka imiyalelo yamandla anokuyihlaziya, iinkqubo zekharbon prifixel, kunye nemigangatho yokukhutshwa kwezithuthi. IKhalifoni, ingakumbi, iye yasebenzisa igunya layo phantsi koMthetho we-Ceac Air Act ukukhupha igesi enokuthi amanye amazwe akhethe ukuyilandela, ayile umgangatho wesizwe ophembelela ukuvelisa inqwelo-nqwelo-mafutha.
Impilo Kawonke - wonke Nempendulo Yexesha Lentlekele
Iimbopheleleko zempilo karhulumente zidityanisiwe kurhulumente, kurhulumente, nakumazwe asekuhlaleni, kumgangatho ngamnye osebenza iindima ezahlukeneyo kodwa ezixhasanayo. Iziko loLawulo lwezifo nothintelo lweziko linika ukuhlolwa kwezifo zesizwe, inkqubela-nkqubo, linika ukhokelo kwisebe lezonyango lesizwe nelengingqi. IFoood and Drug Ad Administration ilawula ukhuseleko lokutya, amayeza, kunye nezixhobo zezamayeza kumgangatho wesizwe. Noko ke, amaziko neendawo zisebenzisa iinkqubo ezininzi zempilo zikawonke-wonke kwaye zisabela kwiinkqubo zempilo zoluntu ezikhoyo.
Isifo se-COVOID-19 sabalaselisa amandla kunye nocelomngeni lwale nkqubo yoxanduva. Amasebe omanyano anika uphando, ukhokelo, kunye noovimba, kuquka ukuphuhliswa kwemiqhano kunye nonikezelo lolwamkelo. Noko ke, amatyala enza izigqibo ezininzi malunga nokuvalwa koshishino, iimfuno zemaski, kunye neminye imiqathango, oku kuphumela kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo kulo lonke ilizwe. Oku kwahluka-hlukeneyo kwabonisa zombini inkqubo yesizwe kunye nokungavisisani ngomlinganiselo ofanelekileyo phakathi kokhuseleko loluntu kunye noqoqosho kunye nenkululeko yobuqu.
Ulawulo lwexesha likaxakeka lubandakanya ukulungelelanisa urhulumente, urhulumente, kunye namagunya asekuhlaleni, ingakumbi ngexesha leentlekele ezinkulu. I-Arhente yeFederal Emergency Management Agency inika ubuncwane kunye nomanyano kwimiqathango emikhulu egqitha urhulumente kunye nomthamo wasekuhlaleni, kodwa amaphondo agcina eyawo amasebe olawulo longxamiseko kwaye kufuneka acele uncedo lwamagunya karhulumente. Le nkqubo ivumela ulawulo lwengingqi ngexesha longxamiseko lomhla wonke ngoxa iqinisekisa ukuba ubuncwane bukarhulumente bukho xa kuyimfuneko kwiziganeko eziyingozi ezinjengeenkanyamba, iinyikima okanye iintlaselo zabanqolobi.
Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo neMigangatho
Nangona imfundo iyintloko imbopheleleko karhulumente, urhulumente wesizwe uphembelela inkqubo yemfundo ngokuxhasa ngemali, ngokunyanzelisa amalungelo abantu, nangokumisela imigaqo-nkqubo yezemfundo. ISebe lezemfundo liqhuba iinkqubo zemfundo zikarhulumente, kuquka uncedo lwemali yabafundi, inkxaso yemfundo ekhethekileyo, kunye neminikelo yokuxhasa abafundi abasweleyo. Imithetho elawula amalungelo asekuhlaleni iyaluthintela ucalucalulo lwemfundo olusekelwe kuhlanga, isini, ubulwelwe, nezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo, kunye nokuqinisekisa oku kumiselwa kwezi mfuneko zezikolo.
Inkqubo yemfundo yomanyano iye yaqalisa ngokuhamba kwexesha, ngenyathelo elifana noNo Child Lead Behind ne-Everly Students Act emisela iimfuno zokuphendula ityala kwizikolo ezifumana inkxaso karhulumente. Le mithetho ifuna ukuba kuvavanywe abafundi, kuvezwe iziphumo, kwaye kungenelwe kwizikolo ezingaphumeleliyo, nangona amaphondo ekwazi ukutshintsha indlela ajonga ngayo imicimbi yawo yokuphendula. Kwakhona urhulumente wesizwe uxhasa uphando lwemfundo, uqokelela amanani emfundo yesizwe, kwaye ukhuthaza ukuvela kweenkqubo zokhuphicotho-ntlalo.
Imfundo ephakamileyo ibandakanya inkxalabo entsonkothileyo yengingqi yephondo. Ingxowa-mali yemali neyolawulo lwamaphondo aseUnited States ilawula iiyunivesithi zikarhulumente, kodwa iinkqubo zoncedo lwabafundi zequmrhu zinika izigidi zabafundi inkxaso kuphando oluninzi oluqhutywa kwiiyunivesithi, ngoxa imimiselo karhulumente ilawula iindawo ezifana nokhuseleko lwaseyunivesithi, ubugocimbi babafundi, neenkqubo zemidlalo. Olu manyano lwenze ukuba amaMerika afumaneke kwimfundo ephakamileyo kubemi abaninzi ngoxa kuxhaswa amaziko ophando odidi lwehlabathi.
Ulawulo lwezothutho nokucwangcisa
Uphuhliso lwezibonelelo zothutho lubandakanya intsebenziswano enkulu yesizwe sikarhulumente, urhulumente wesizwe elungiselela inkxaso ephawulekayo yeeprojekthi zezothutho zikarhulumente kunye nezoluntu. Iinkqubo zohola-ndlela, ezixhaswa ngerhafu yegesi karhulumente, zisasaze amawaka ezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka kwimimandla yolwakhiwo nolungiso lweendlela. Noko ke, amaphondo kufuneka athelekise imali karhulumente aze athobele iimfuno zesizwe malunga nokuhlelwa kweprojekthi, uhlalutyo lwemekobume, kunye nemigangatho yokwakha.
Inkqubo yezothutho yomanyano iphembelela izigqibo zikarhulumente ngokuxhasa ngemali kunye neemfuno. Umzekelo, umthetho karhulumente wamisela ubuncinane bokusela kwesizwe obuneminyaka engama-21 ngokusongela ukunqanda inkxaso-mali yoohola-ndlela kumaphondo angathobeli. Ngokufanayo, imfuno zikarhulumente zokhuseleko lohola-ndlela, ukhuseleko lwemekobume, kunye nokufumaneka kwabantu abaneziphene.
Iinkqubo zothutho lukawonke-wonke zifumana inkxaso-mali karhulumente kodwa zicetyiswe kwaye zisetyenziswa ngurhulumente kunye namagunya asekuhlaleni. ULawulo loManyano lunika izibonelelo kwiiprojekthi ezinkulu zothutho kunye nemisebenzi, ingakumbi kwiinkqubo ezisebenza kuluntu olufumana imali ephantsi. Noko ke, amaphondo neendawo zenza izigqibo malunga nokuba zeziphi iindidi zohambo eziza kunikezelwa, apho kuzakufunyanwa khona iindlela, nendlela yokudibanisa uthutho nolungiso lomhlaba kunye neenkqubo zokuphuhlisa kwezoqoqosho.
Imvelaphi Yomanyano Ekuhambeni Kwexesha
Ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente luye lwatshintsha ngokuphawulekayo kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika, lubonisa ukuguquka kweemeko zezoqoqosho, imibutho yentlalo, inkqubela kwezobugcisa, kunye neentanda-bulumko zobupolitika. Ukuqonda le ndaleko kunceda kucacisa iingxoxo ezikhoyo malunga nomgangatho ofanelekileyo wegunya likarhulumente kunye norhulumente kwaye kunika umongo wenkxalabo eqhubekayo kwinkqubo yorhulumente.
Umanyano lwangaphambili namalungelo karhulumente
Kwiminyaka yokuqala yerepublic, urhulumente wesizwe wasebenzisa amagunya alinganiselweyo ngokuthelekisa, kunye namazwana agcina imbopheleleko eyintloko yemisebenzi emininzi karhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo phantsi kweJaji eliPhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yaqalisa ukwandisa igunya lesizwe ngezigqibo ezathi ngokuphandle zachaza amagunya orhulumente asemagunyeni kwaye zamisela ubungangamsha borhulumente kwimithetho engqubanayo. Noko ke, amaphondo ahlala engowona msebenzi uphambili worhulumente, urhulumente egxininise ngokuyintloko kwimicimbi yamazwe angaphandle, ukhuseleko lwesizwe, kunye nommandla wasentshona.
Imfazwe yamakhaya yamela incopho enzima kwiNkqutyana yoLuntu yaseMerika, imisela ngokuqinisekisiweyo ukuba amaphondo akanakukwazi ukuphuma kumaGunya oMbuso nokuba igunya lorhulumente laliza kulawula ukuxhathisa kwezo mfazwe kwimibandela esisiseko. INkqutyana yemfazwe yasemva kwe-Civil yayisekuphendulweni komGaqo-siseko, ingakumbi uMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine, owenziwe wanda amandla orhulumente ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye nokuchaswa kwephondo, nangona la malungiselelo ebengayi kunyanzeleka ngokupheleleyo kangangenkulungwane.
Ukwenziwa Okutsha Nolwando Lwegunya Lomanyano
Ukudodobala Okukhulu koHlakumo lwama-1930 kwabangela ulwandiso oluphawulekayo lwegunya likarhulumente phantsi kweenkqubo ze-Presidenti uKapitalin Roosevelt. Urhulumente wengingqi wafumana iimbopheleleko ezintsha kulawulo lwezoqoqosho, intlalo-ntle, kunye nomsebenzi, ukwenza iinkqubo ezifana noKhuselo loluntu, i-inshorensi yokungaqeshwa, kunye nenkxaso-mali yezolimo eqhubeka nanamhlanje. INkundla ePhakamileyo yalwa kwaqala yaluchasa olu lwando kodwa ekugqibeleni yamkela ucaciswa-calulo olubanzi lwamandla karhulumente ukulawula umsebenzi wezoqoqosho.
Eli xesha lamisela umzekelo womanyano lwamaqumrhu, apho oorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente basebenza kunye ukucombulula iingxaki zesizwe, urhulumente wesizwe enikela inkxaso-mali kunye nokumisela imigangatho ngeli xesha oorhulumente bezalisekisa iinkqubo. Le ndlela iphawule iindawo ezininzi zemigaqo-nkqubo, ukusuka kulwakhiwo lweendlela ukuya kwiinkqubo zentlalo-ntle, ukuseka inkqubo yezorhulumente engasekelwanga zweni okanye kurhulumente opheleleyo kodwa ibandakanya ubudlelane obuntsonkothileyo kunye neembopheleleko ezabelana ngazo.
Amalungelo asekuhlaleni kunye noMbutho
Umbutho wamalungelo abantu woo1950 nawowee1960 wakhokelela kolunye ulwandiso olubalulekileyo lwegunya likarhulumente, njengoko urhulumente wesizwe wangenelela ukukhusela amalungelo abantu base-Afrika kunye nabanye abancinane nxamnye nocalucalulo olukhutshiweyo lukarhulumente. Iinkundla zoMazwe zayalela ukuba kususwe izivumelwano zezikolo, uMthetho wamaLungelo wamaPolitiki wowe-1964 owalwalela ucalucalulo kwimisebenzi nakwindawo yokuhlala karhulumente, kunye noMthetho we-Voting Rights Act ka-19656 wanika ulawulo lonyulo olulawula amagunya ajongenekhethelo.
Ezi zindululo zamisela umgaqo wokuba urhulumente wesizwe anyanzelise amalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwanaxa kuxhatshazwa ngurhulumente, ngokusisiseko eguqula ulungelelwano lwamandla kwinkqubo yorhulumente. Ngoxa abanye bakugqala oku njengokuyimfuneko ukukhusela amalungelo asisiseko, abanye bakugqala njengokuphangwa kwesizwe kwiindawo ezivunyelweyo ukuba zifumaneke. Olu nxunguphalo luyaqhubeka lubumba iingxoxo ezimalunga negunya lorhulumente elinxulumene norhulumente kwimimandla esusela kumalungelo okuvota ukuya kuLGBTQ.
Indaleko Nenkqubo Entsha Yomanyano
Ukususela ngo-1980 naqhubeka ukutyhubela iminyaka yowe-1990, kwakukho imigudu yokuguqula amandla abuyele kumaphondo oko kwakubizwa ngokuba yi-"New Federalism" okanye "devolution". La manyathelo afuna ukunciphisa imiyalelo karhulumente, anika iimeko ezinobubhetyebhetye ngakumbi ekuqhubeni iinkqubo ze-ografiki, kwaye abuyisela iimbopheleleko ezithile ngokupheleleyo ekulawuleni. Utshintsho lwe-Welfare ngo1996 lwabonisa le ndlela, ukuguqula imfuno yentlalo-ntlalo-ntle yesizwe ukuba ibe zizibonelelo ezinika ingqiqo engakumbi ekuyileni iinkqubo zazo.
Noko ke, utyekelo lokususa utshintsho alutshintshanga, igunya likarhulumente liqhubeka lisanda kwezinye iindawo njengokuba layalelwa kwezinye. Imiyalelo yemfundo yomanyano yanda phantsi komgangatho wenkqubo weSiko leMvulo eshiywe emva kweSeptemba 11, 2001, iimfuno zokhuseleko lwelizwe lasekuhlaleni zabeka imithwalo emitsha kumaphondo emva koSeptemba 11, 2001, kunye notshintsho lwezonyango phantsi koMthetho we-Affordble Care Act, lwadala imigangatho emitsha ye-Medicaid ngelifashine yorhulumente.
Ucelomngeni lwangoku kwiiNdlela zoManyano
Inkqubo karhulumente iyaqhubeka ijongene neengxaki njengoko ibutho lixabana neengxaki ezintsonkothileyo ezingangeni kakuhle kwiindidi zesithethe zoxanduva lukarhulumente okanye urhulumente. Le mingeni ivavanya ubulula nokuzinziswa kolawulo lwamaMelika ngeli lixa kuqhubeka kusenziwa impikiswano eqhubekayo ngokulungelelana okufanelekileyo kwamandla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente.
IMibutho eHlanganisiweyo kunye noLungelo lwePuscal
Enye imvelaphi eqhubekayo yengxingongela ibandakanya imiqathango karhulumente efuna ukuba amazwe athathe izenzo ezithile ngaphandle kokulungiselela iindleko ezaneleyo zokuhlangabezana neendleko. Le miyalelo ingagunyaziswanga ingazama uqingqo-mali kunye nemithetho enyanzelisayo yorhulumente ukuphambukisa oovimba bezinye izinto eziphambili. Ngelixesha iBhunga ligqithise iMandadates Reform Act eHlayment ngo1995 ukuze lisikelwe umda lo msebenzi, inkxakezo ngolawulo lwamagunya aphantsi kweendleko eziqhubeka, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezifana nemfundo ekhethekileyo, ukhuseleko lwemekobume, kunye nolawulo lonyulo.
Ulwalamano lwemali phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente luye lwantsonkotha ngakumbi, ngenxa yokuba amaphondo axhomekeke kwinkxaso-mali yecandelo lawo elibalulekileyo loqingqo-mali lolwaluko loluntu lodwa lo gama liphinda likhuphisana nemali yemali yemali yemali neprojekthi. Imali yomanyano isoloko ihambisana nemitya edityanisiweyo, inika urhulumente igunya lokuphembelela imigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente nakwiindawo apho ingenalo igunya elingqalileyo lomgaqo-siseko. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwiingxoxo zokuba ngaba iimeko zemali zesizwe zibangela ingcinezelo elulaza ulawulo lukarhulumente.
Ukukhululwa noMbuso
Ukukhululwa kwe-athom kwenzeka xa umthetho karhulumente uthatha indawo yomthetho othile, uthintela iimeko ekulawuleni kwanaxa zinqwenela ukwenza oko. Ukukhululwa kusenokuba cacileyo, xa umthetho wesizwe ulwalela umgaqo wesizwe, okanye uzalisekisa, xa umgaqo worhulumente ubanzi kangangokuba ungena kuyo yonke intsimi. Ingxoxo ngokukhutshwa kwentelekelelo ngokufuthi ifaka izilangazelelo zeshishini ezifuna imilinganiselo efanayo yesizwe nxamnye norhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni abafuna ukuthetha ngemibandela yasekuhlaleni.
Kwangaxeshanye, amatyala asebenza njenge "iinkcubeko zedemokhrasi," uvavanyo lwenkqubo esenokumkelwa kamva zezinye imimandla okanye urhulumente worhulumente. Izinto ezintsha kwimimandla efana notshintsho lwezonyango, ukhuseleko lwemekobume, kunye nokuguqulwa kobulungisa bezomthetho kuphembelele iingxoxo zenkqubo yesizwe kwaye kubonise ixabiso lokuvumela amazwe ukuba azame iindlela ezahlukeneyo. Olu vavanyo luyenye lweengenelo ezingundoqo zolawulo lorhulumente, luvumela ukuba imigaqo-nkqubo ivavanywe ngomlinganiselo omncinci phambi kokuba kufunyanwe ngamazwe.
Ukusebenzisana Nesigqeba Samazwe Ahlukeneyo Nokhuphiswano
Amazwe kufuneka asebenzisane kwimiba enqamleza imida karhulumente, ukusuka ekulawuleni ubuncwane bamanzi kunye nokusukela abafuduki ababalekayo benqumla kwiingingqi zikarhulumente. Izixhobo eziququzelela imigaqo-nkqubo ye-interstate zinika inkqubo yokuba amazwe asebenze kunye kwiingxaki ezifanayo, nezivumelwano ezigquma iindawo ezinjengezothutho, oovimba bendalo, kunye noomatshini bokulungisa izakhiwo. UmGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba isivumelwano sivunywe kwiqumrhu lemibutho lezopolitiko, nangona kuqhelise ukusebenza izivumelwano ezininzi zisebenza ngaphandle kokubandakanyelwano kumthetho.
Noko ke, amaphondo aphinda akhuphisana ngamashishini, abemi, kunye nenkqubela-phambili yezoqoqosho. Olu khuphiswano lungaqhubela iinguqu eziluncedo nenkqubela phambili, kodwa lungakhokelela ku "ugqatso oluya ezantsi" apho amazwe alawula imigangatho esezantsi okanye anciphisa irhafu ukutsala amashishini, enokuthi icuthe ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo okanye iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke. Ingxoxo ziyaqhubeka nokuba ukhuphiswano lweziphene zelizwe luvelisa iziphumo eziluncedo okanye ezingalunganga kwaye nendima ekufuneka isetyenziswe ngurhulumente ekubekeni imilinganiselo emincinane.
Ubugcisa Nocelomngeni Olunzima
Ubugcisa bale mihla budala imingeni kwiingcamango ezingokwesithethe zolawulo lorhulumente nolawulo lwesizwe. Ukunqamleza iintambo zezorhwebo ze-Intanethi ngaphandle komgudu, kuphakamisa imibuzo ephathelele ukuba yeyiphi inkcitho yezorhwebo kwi-intanethi kwaye ilawula amashishini amanani. Amaqonga oluntu asebenza ngokwesizwe nasemhlabeni wonke, enza kube nzima ukulawula ulwaneliseko okanye ukukhusela imfihlo.
Ezi nkqubela-phambili zobugcisa ziye zabangela ukuba kwenziwe imigaqo-mthetho efanayo yesizwe, kodwa zikwaphembelele izinto ezintsha zikarhulumente kwimimandla enjenge-data yobuqu, apho umthetho we-oyile ye-Khalifoniya othengisela imali uye waphembelela iindlela zokusebenzisa iindlela zesizwe ezizinzileyo kunye nexabiso lokuvavanya urhulumente nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni luyaqhubeka ukubumba iinkqubo zokuxoxisana ngokwexesha lamanani.
Indlela Abemi Abasebenzisana Ngayo Noorhulumente Bomanyano Noorhulumente
Kuninzi lwabantu baseMerika, ukunxibelelana norhulumente imihla ngemihla kusenzeka ngokuyintloko kumgangatho welizwe nasekuhlaleni, nangona urhulumente wengingqi esenokubonakala ngakumbi ngokupapashwa kwendaba yesizwe nangezobupolitika zomongameli. Ukuqonda indlela abemi abadibana ngayo nomgangatho owahlukeneyo karhulumente kunceda ekucaciseni ukubaluleka kolawulo kubomi bemihla ngemihla.
Imisebenzi
Abahlali bayasebenzisana norhulumente wephondo xa befumana ilayisensi yokuqhuba, iimoto ezibhaliswayo, kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke okanye kwiiyunivesithi, ukufumana iinzuzo zonyango lwezonyango okanye ukunyanzeliswa komthetho karhulumente. Imimiselo yezorhulumente ichaphazela ukubekwa kwemiqathango yezobugcisa, imisebenzi yezoshishino, ukuba nempahla, umtshato noqhawulo-mtshato, nezinye iinkalo ezingenakubalwano ezininzi zobomi bemihla ngemihla. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni, ukusuka kumathikithi okuthatha izivumelwano zokungavumelani namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho.
Ukunxibelelana kukarhulumente womanyano kudla ngokungabonwa kodwa kubaluleke ngokufanayo. IMisebenzi ifumana iingenelo zeNtlalo-ntle neMedicas, ihlawula irhafu yemali karhulumente, isebenzise irhafu ekhuselweyo yemali, ixhomekeke ekuhlolweni kokutya korhulumente nokukhuselwa kweziyobisi, kwaye ingenelwe kukhuseleko lwamalungelo oluntu. Imimiselo yomanyano ichaphazela ukhuseleko emsebenzini, umgangatho wemekobume, iimveliso zabathengi, kunye neenkonzo zemali, kwanaxa abemi bengabalukhathaleli ngokuthe ngqo ubugaqo-nxaxheba
Ukuthabatha Inxaxheba Kwezobupolitika Nomelo
Abahlali banenxaxheba kwiinkqubo zobupolitika zorhulumente norhulumente ngokuvota, ngokuqhagamshelana namagosa anyuliweyo, nokubandakanyeka kunyulo lobungangamsha. Urhulumente kunye nonyulo lwasekuhlaleni ludla ngokuba nempembelelo engqalileyo kubomi bemihla ngemihla kunokhetho lwamarhulumente, luchaphazela inkxaso-mali yesikolo, iirhafu zempahla, inkqubela-phambili yengingqi, kunye neenkonzo zoluntu. Noko ke, ivoti idla ngokuba yeyona iphezulu kunyulo lwamagunya, ngokukodwa kunyulo lwamagunya nolo lwasekuhlaleni.
Inkqubo yesizwe yenza iingongoma ezininzi zokufikelela kwimpembelelo yabemi, ivumela abantu ukuba basukele iinjongo zobupolitika nangaliphi na iqondo likarhulumente elibonakala livuma. Abameli abasilelayo ukufikelela iinjongo zabo kumgangatho wesizwe bangaphethukela kumazwe, kwaye ngokuchaseneyo. Oku kusetyenziswa kweendawo ezininzi zezopolitiko kukungamandla nocelomngeni lolawulo, ukulungiselela amathuba okuba nenxaxheba ngoxa bedala ukuntsonkotha nokudideka malunga nendawo ekunokukhokelwa kuyo imigudu yempatho-mandla.
Amalungelo nokhuseleko
Abahlali banandipha amalungelo nenkxaso phantsi komgaqo-siseko wesizwe nowesizwe, maxa wambi unomgaqo-siseko karhulumente onikela ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kunomGaqo-siseko wezwe. Umzekelo, eminye imimiselo karhulumente iquka amalungelo acacileyo emfihlo, ukukhuselwa kwemeko-bume, okanye imfundo isiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mgaqo-siseko othe ngqo olinganayo nowamagunya. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zichaza amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko ngokuzimeleyo, nangona kufuneka zihlonele ubuncinane bomgaqo-siseko.
Xa kuvela iingxabano zamalungelo, umthetho karhulumente udla ngokulawula phantsi koMgaqo-siseko kaClaus, kodwa amatyala anganikela ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo olungaphaya kweemfuno zikarhulumente. Oku kuthetha ukuba umgangatho wokhuseleko lwamalungelo ungahlukahluka kwiimeko zamazwe, amanye amazwe anikela ukhuseleko olunamandla kubasebenzi, abathengi, okanye imekobume kunabanye. Abahlali abaxhalabele amalungelo abo kufuneka baqonde umthetho worhulumente norhulumente ukuba bawaxabise ngokupheleleyo amakhuselo neemfuno zabo ezisemthethweni.
Ikamva Lomanyano LwamaMerika
Urhulumente waseMerika uyaqhubeka eguquka ngenxa yokuguquka kweemeko, imibutho yezobupolitika neemfuno zentlalo. Izimo neengxaki eziliqela zisenokubumba ulungelelwano olukhoyo phakathi kwamandla orhulumente norhulumente kwiminyaka ezayo namashumi eminyaka.
Ukwenziwa kwelanga kunye nokudibiswa kwemithetho
Ukwanda kokuthatyathwa kwemimandla yezobupolitika kubangele ulwahluko olukhulayo lwenkqubo phakathi kwamazwe, namazwe ajongene nedemokhrasi ajongene neendlela ezahlukeneyo kuneemeko zeRiphabliki kwimicimbi esukela kwinkxalabo yempilo ukuya kumgaqo wemipu ukuya kukhuseleko lwemeko- bume. Oku kutsho kunyuke oku kubonisa ukuba bhetyebhetye-bhetye kwesixokelelwano solawulo lorhulumente kunye nocelomngeni lokugcina umanyano lwesizwe xa amazwana efumana imigaqo eyahlukileyo kwimibandela ebalulekileyo.
Abanye abajongi baxhalatyiswa kukuba umahluko ogqithisileyo wenkqubo yesizwe ungaphazamisa umanyano okanye ubangele iingxaki ezisebenzisekayo kumashishini nabantu abasebenza kwiingingqi zikarhulumente. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi umahluko womgangatho worhulumente yinto elungiselelwe urhulumente ukulungiselela ukulungiselela, ukuvumela abantu abahlukeneyo baqhubeke becinga ukuba balawule kakuhle ngoxa begcina ulawulo olufanayo lwesizwe. Uxinezeleko phakathi komanyano nolwahluka-hlukeneyo luza kuqhubeka lucel ’ umngeni uburhulumente baseMelika ngexesha lezantlukwano ezinzulu zezobupolitika.
Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Neengxaki Zemekobume
Utshintsho lwemozulu lubangela ucelomngeni oluthile kurhulumente kuba ukukhutshwa kwegesi ekhupha igesi eshushu kunqamleza urhulumente kunye nemida yesizwe, okwenza iimpendulo zomgangatho ophezulu wamazwe angonele. Noko ke, inkqubo yemozulu karhulumente yahluka-hlukene ngokuphawulekayo kuxhomekeke ekubeni liliphi iqela elilawula umongameli kunye neBhunga, lidala ukungaqiniseki kwaye libangela amanye amazwe ukuba aqhubeke nenyathelo lawo lemozulu. Umbuzo wokuba alungelelanise njani urhulumente nemozulu ngelixa kuqinisekisa ukuba iminqweno eyaneleyo yokucombulula ingxaki uya kuhlala kukho ingxabano.
Ingxaki zemekobume ezinxulumeneyo, ukusuka ekuswelekeni kwamanzi ukuya ekulahlekeni kwezidalwa ezahlukeneyo ukuya ekulawuleni ungcoliso, ngokufanayo kufuneka kuhambelane kwiindawo eziphakamileyo ngelinye icala kwimibandela esemthethweni yorhulumente kunye neenguqu zasekuhlaleni. Ukufumana ulungelelwano olufanelekileyo phakathi kwemigangatho yesizwe kunye nobume bobugocigoci borhulumente kuya kuba luxanduva olusebenzayo ekukhuseleni imekobume ekhoyo kumashumi eminyaka azayo. Ulwazi olungakumbi ngenkqubo yokusingqongileyo, tyelela i-Arhente ye-
Ukuhambelana kwezoqoqosho nokulungelelaniswa kolawulo
Ukudityaniswa okuqhubekayo koqoqosho lwesizwe nolwehlabathi lonke kubangela uxinzelelo lokulungelelaniswa komgaqo-nkqubo ukuze kuncitshiswe iindleko zokuthobela nokuze kusebenze kwezorhwebo. Noko ke, amaphondo aneenjongo ezifanelekileyo zokulondoloza iindlela zolawulo ezibonakalisa amaxabiso neemeko zasekuhlaleni. Ukulungelelaniswa kwempumelelo kungenelo olufanayo lwesizwe kwiingenelo zomgangatho wombuso womahluko kunye novavanyo kuya kufuna ingxubusho eqhubekayo kunye nokulungelelanisa.
Ubugcisa obudibanisa izinto ezifana nobuntlola obungeyoyamvelo, izithuthi ezizimeleyo, kunye nobugcisa bebhayoloji buza kuvavanya ubuchule benkqubo yengingqi yorhulumente bokwakha inkqubo engqinelanayo enika ubungqina obuqinisekisiweyo kwii-information ngexa ukhusela izilangazelelo zikawonke-wonke. Nokuba ezi teknoloji zilawulwa ngokuyintloko kumgangatho worhulumente okanye kumazwe athile, okanye kudityaniso oluthile, ziya kuchaphazela ngokuphawulekayo zombini ulwakhiwo nokhuseleko lwamaxabiso kawonke-wonke.
Utshintsho lomfanekiso kunye nomelo
Utshintsho lobomi babantu, kuquka ukutshintsha-tshintsha kwabemi phakathi kwamazwana kunye nokwanda kolwahluko lwamazwe, luza kuchaphazela amandla ezobupolitika kunye neenkqubo eziphambili kumgangatho worhulumente nowamazwe. Imfuneko yesiseko somgaqo-siseko yokuba urhulumente ngamnye ube nee-sentenethi ezimbini kungakhathaliseki ukuba baninzi kangakanani na kuthetha ukuba amazwe anayo impembelelo engenakulinganiswa nakanjani kwiNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, uphawu oluthi lwaziswe ngakumbi njengoko abemi begxininisa kwinani elincinane lamazwe. Oku kuphakamisa imibuzo malunga nomelo nokusesikweni kwinkqubo yolawulo.
Ukufuduka kuyaqhubeka kuyindawo elungelelanisa unxulumano lwesizwe nesizwe, namaphondo athatha iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokudibanisa abaphambukeli kunye namanye amazwe acel ’ umngeni izinto eziza kuqala kugcinwa kwemibutho yokufuduka. Njengoko ilizwe lisiba nemibuzo engakumbi, imibuzo malunga nokuba ngubani ongowentlalo yezobupolitika nokuba ngawaphi amalungelo neembopheleleko ezimele ziqhubeke zivelisa ingxubusho ngeendima ezithile zoorhulumente noorhulumente.
Amaziko Angundoqo Okuqonda Iindima Zomanyano Nezaseburhulumenteni
Ukulawula inkqubo karhulumente waseMerika kufuna ukuqonda imigaqo eyintloko eliqela elawula ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente nendlela ekwenziwa nesetyenziswa ngayo imigaqo - siseko kulo lonke elo lizwe.
Imibandela yomsebenzi wesakhelo somGaqo-siseko
UMgaqo-siseko umisela isiseko soburhulumente, unika urhulumente worhulumente othile amandla athile ngoxa ugcina amanye kumazwe. Noko ke, ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko kuye kwaguquka ngokuhamba kwexesha, kwaye ulungelelwaniso olusebenzisekayo lwamandla luye lwatshintsha ngenxa yeemfuno zembali, imigaqo-nkqubo yezobupolitika, kunye nokutshintsha kwemeko. Ukuqonda zombini umbhalo womgaqo-siseko nendlela oye wachazwa ngayo kunceda ekucaciseni ukwabiwa kwegunya kwangoku.
Ukusebenzisana Nengxabano
Urhulumente womanyano norhulumente bayasebenzisana kwaye bakhuphisana, maxa wambi. Iingingqi ezininzi zibandakanya umanyano apho oorhulumente borhulumente noorhulumente basebenza kunye kwiinjongo ezifanayo, ngelixa ezinye iindawo zibonakalisa ukungqubana kwegunya, oovimba, okanye ulwalathiso lwenkqubo. Olu xinezeleko luluphawu, kungekhona lwesiphene, lwenkqubo karhulumente, lunika uhlolo kumandla karhulumente ngoxa lusenza inyathelo elidibeneyo kwiingxaki.
Imisela umgangatho ofanelekileyo karhulumente
Akukho mpendulo inye yokuba urhulumente wesizwe okanye wesizwe ufanele ukusingatha imiba ethile. Umgangatho ofanelekileyo karhulumente uxhomekeke kuhlobo lwengxaki, imfuneko yokulingana nokutshintsha-tshintsha, amandla omgangatho owahlukeneyo karhulumente, kunye nezigwebo ezixabisekileyo malunga nokubekwa phambili kolawulo lwasekuhlaleni. Abantu abahlukeneyo ngokusengqiqweni bayaphikisana ngezi migwebo, nto leyo ekhokelela kwiingxoxo eziqhubekayo eziphathelele uburhulumente.
Abemi Banokubandakanyeka Kwimigangatho Ehlukahlukeneyo
Inkqubo karhulumente inika iindawo ezininzi zokuba nenxaxheba kubemi nokuphatha i-arhente. Ukuqonda ukuba liliphi iqondo likarhulumente elinegunya kwiimbambano ezithile kunceda abemi balapho balawule ngokunempumelelo ukubotshelelwa kwabo kwezobupolitika. Kwakhona kuthetha ukuba imiqobo kumgangatho omnye karhulumente ayiphelisi impikiswano yemithetho, njengokuba abameli benokusukela usukelo lwabo kwezinye iindawo zikarhulumente.
Umanyano Lusasebenza Ngokunamandla
Ulungelelwano phakathi kwamandla karhulumente norhulumente luyaqhubeka lwenzeka kwaye lusenokubonakala lwahlukile kwixesha elizayo kunanamhlanje. Imingeni emitsha, ubugcisa, kunye nentsebenziswano yezobupolitika ziza kudala imibuzo emitsha ngokuphathelele ukusasazwa kogunya ngendlela efanelekileyo kwinkqubo karhulumente. Ukugcina inkqubo esebenzayo kudinga utshintsho oluqhubekayo kunye nengxoxo phakathi komgangatho owahlukeneyo karhulumente naphakathi kwabemi abanombono owahlukeneyo ngendlela amandla amele asabiwe ngayo.
Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi
Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngemithetho-siseko yaseMerika kunye neendima zoorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente, oovimba abaninzi bayafumaneka. Iwebhsayithi ye-USA.gov inikela ulwazi ngeenkonzo zorhulumente kunye namaqumrhu. Iiwebhsayithi zikarhulumente ngamnye zinikela ulwazi malunga neenkqubo neenkonzo zesizwe. Ubuncwane be-Academic, kuquka izifundo zeyunivesithi neencwadi zabaphengululi, zinika uhlalutyo olunzulu lwe-custom kunye nee-systrunics.
Ukuqonda ukwahlulwa kweembopheleleko phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente borhulumente norhulumente kubalulekile ukuze abemi abanolwazi kunye nokuba nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kulawulo-mpukane lwaseMelika. Ngoxa le nkqubo ingathi intsonkothe, le nkqubo ibonakalisa ukhetho lwamaqhinga lokwahlula-hlula amandla phakathi kwemigangatho emininzi karhulumente njengendlela yokukhusela ubuzwilakhe kunye nenkqubo yokulungisa izinto ezikhethwayo ezahlukeneyo kulo lonke ilizwe elikhulu nelahlukeneyo. Ngokuqonda okuqhuba kakuhle, abemi banokuqhuba inkqubo karhulumente, bagcine amagosa ebeke ityala, kwaye bathathe inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo ekulungiseni imigaqo echaphazela ubomi babo.
Inkqubo karhulumente waseMerika imela uvavanyo oluqhubekayo lokulungelelanisa umanyano lwesizwe nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni, inyathelo elidibeneyo nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye, kunye nokusebenza ngempumelelo kokuthabatha inxaxheba kwedemokhrasi. Olu vavanyo luye lwanyamezela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, ukuqhelanisa nocelomngeni olusuka kwimfazwe yamakhaya ukuya kuxinezeleko lwezoqoqosho lwehlabathi lonke. Njengoko kuvela imingeni emitsha, inkqubo yezolawulo iza kuqhubeka iguquka, ibunjwa lukhetho lwabemi, amagosavel-ofisi, kunye nabagwebi abamele baqhubeke bemisela imida phakathi korhulumente kunye negunya lorhulumente. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kunye nokuba nenxaxheba kule ngxoxo iqhubekayo kukuzingentlalo-ntle, iya kuqhubeka ingumsebenzi wokuba ngummi kwi-Riphabliki yorhulumente.
Ukuze ufumane ulwazi olungakumbi ngesakhiwo sikarhulumente waseMerika nendlela eyahluke ngayo imiphakamiso enxulumene ngayo, oovimba bobuzwe banika ukufumaneka kokusekwa kwamaphepha kunye nezinto zembali ezikhanyisa imvelaphi kunye nendaleko yolawulo lwamaMelika. Iintlangano zemfundo kunye nezoluntu zikwanika iinkqubo kunye nezibonelelo zokunceda abemi bamazwe ukuba baqonde kwaye babandakanyeke kwinkqubo yabo karhulumente yomgangatho omninzi, ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akasiyo nje inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko kodwa uqheliselo oluphilayo lolawulo lwedemokhrasi.