Table of Contents
Ukwazisa: Indaleko Enamandla Yamalungelo omGaqo-siseko
UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka inkqubo yokulawula kodwa washiya imigaqo yayo emininzi ivulekile ukutolikwa. Kwiinkulungwane, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenza njengomchasi-siseko opheleleyo wentsingiselo yezomGaqo-siseko, ukunikela izigqibo eziye zatshintsha ngokusisiseko kwibutho lamaMelika. Amatyala enkcathotho achaza ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente, ukwandisa inkululeko yabantu ngabanye, kwaye ilungisa ukungalungisi okungekho sikweni okufakwe emthethweni. Le mithetho ayizange ivele kwikhamathe; yasabela kwimibutho yentlalo yezopolitiki, kwaye ichaza ukuqonda ukulingana nenkululeko. Ukuqonda la matyala kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko angahlaziswe ngayo kodwa avavanywa ngayo ngokuqhubekayo nangokuchasisa ngokuhlola komthetho.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): IBedrock of Judicial Review
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
Kwiiyure eziphelayo zolawulo lukaMongameli John Adams, kwenziwa isiphithi-xesha samatyala, kuquka uWilliam Marbury njengobulungisa boxolo. Xa unobhala omtsha weSizwe, uJames Madison, wala ukudlulisela ugunyaziso lukaMarbury, Marbury wabongoza iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba ifumane imvume yemandamus. Ityala lanyanzela uJahn Marshall ukuba ahambele kwindawo ehlala kuyo ephakathi kwe-Federalists kunye ne-Democratic Republicans.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
Uluvo lukaMarshall lwaluyintsebenziswano. Wavakalisa ukuba iMarbury yayinelungelo lokuya kugunyaziswa kodwa iNkundla Ephakamileyo yayingenakukhupha uphicotho lwezijudisi ngenxa yokuba iCandelo 13 loMthetho weJadiary ka-1789, owathi watyholwa ngokunika iNkundla elo gunya, yayingenagunya. Okwesihlandlo sokuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa amandla [oMkhosi oPhakamileyo: 0] okuhlaziya [[FLT:]] [FLT]] [igunya lokuwisa imithetho engqubana noMgaqo-siseko.] Isigqibo saphepha ukungqubana ngqo nesebe eliphetheyo ngexesha elinye limisa indima yesebe lorhulumente.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Marbury v. Madison wamisa iNkundla ePhakamileyo njengetoliki yokugqibela yomGaqo-siseko. Ngaphandle kwalo mzekelo, imithetho elandelayo efana ne Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo ne-Obergefell v. Hodges ibingayi kufumana igunya elisisiseko lokuphelisa urhulumente kunye nemithetho karhulumente. Eli tyala lihlala liselilungu lomthetho-siseko waseMelika, liqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zomthetho-siseko zihlala ziphantsi kwemida yesiseko somgaqo-siseko. [FLT: 0] ukubona isishwankathelo sika-Oyez soMgaqo-siseko we- Marbury v. Madison[FL:1].
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukudideka “Ukwahlula Kodwa Kuyalingana”
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
Emashumini eminyaka emva kwe Plaby v. Ferguson isigqibo (1896) sagunyazisa ukuhlukaniswa kweentlanga phantsi kwemfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo”, iintsapho zaseAfrika zaqhubeka zibandezeleka phantsi kwezikolo eziphantsi, izikolo zikawonke-wonke, kunye nezithuthi. Ekuqaleni koo1950, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, ikhokelwe nguThurmall Marshall, walungiselela ucelomngeni olulungelelanisiweyo lokuququluza kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke. Ityala laququlunqelela ityala amahlanu ahlukeneyo, kunye nentombi ka-Oliver Brow uLinda ekhatywa yi-Orban emhlophe eTopeka, eKansa.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
IJaji enkulu u-Warren wanika uluvo oludibeneyo olwarhoxayo Plusy. Inkundla yathi inkundla yemfundo esusiweyo ayilingani ngokwemvelo, ihluza abantwana abambalwa abanamathuba alinganayo emfundo naxa izinto zokoqobo zazilingana. Umthetho waxhomekeka kumgangatho we-Equal Clause [ we-Grandment-mediation kunye nezifundo zengqondo ezicaciswe zibonisa iziphumo eziyingozi kubantwana abaNtsundu
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo ayizange ikhawuleze iphelise i-pantion yesikolo, `ithathe iminyaka yokunyanzelisa nokunye ukunyanzeliswa kwemithetho karhulumente kunye nemithetho engakumbi yesizwe) kodwa yanika isiseko esisemthethweni sombutho wamalungelo abantu. Yabonisa ukuba ijaji ayisayi kuphinda inyamezele ucalucalulo lwesizwe kwaye yalungisa indlela yoMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964 kunye noMthetho we-Voting Rights Act ka-19656. Ukufumana iinkcukacha ezininzi, tyelela [[FLT: 0] ithala leencwadi leBrown brown v. Board iregistration.
UGideon (1963): Ilungelo Lokucebisa
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
UClarence Earl Gideon wayelihlwempu elihlwempu elihambayo elityholwa ngokuqhekeza kwigumbi lokuhlala eFlorida. Engakwazi ukufikelela igqwetha, wacela inkundla ukuba imisele enye. Ilizwe lasikhaba isicelo sakhe, yaye uGidiyon wanyanzeleka ukuba azimela; wabanjwa waza wagwetyelwa iminyaka emihlanu entolongweni. Kwisisele sakhe, uGidiyon wanika isicelo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, waphikisa ngelithi [[FLT:] uSixth Amendment Isindululo sokucebisa. Inkundla yavuma ukuva ityala lakhe.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
Kwisigqibo esiyelelanisiweyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasilawula esona sicwangciso sayo sangaphambili ebambe Brady v. Brady (1942), eyayisikelwe umda ilungelo lokumisela icebiso kwiimeko ezithile. IJaji Hugo Black yabhala ukuba amagqwetha kwinkundla yabaphuli-mthetho ayimfuneko, kungekhona ubunewunewu, kwaye isiqinisekiso seSindululo seSithandathu soMphengululo sisebenza kumazwe nge-[ I-SCHOOM SOMKLE [ yeSihlalo se-14. Inkundla yabonisa ukuba nawuphi na umntu ongeneyo kwinkundla engekho ngqiqweni ukuba aqekelelwa ukuba aphinde aqinisekise ukuvavanywa ngokulungileyo ngaphandle kokuba kunikelwe isiluleko.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
UGidiyon k. Wainwright waguqula inkqubo yobulungisa yolwaphulo-mthetho. Kwafuneka ukuba ama- States amisele iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke ukuze anike abamangalelwa abagwebi abasemthethweni. Oku kumisela umgaqo oqinisekisiweyo wokuba inkqubo yokulwa ixhomekeke ekulinganiseni kwezixhobo (-/* ngaphandle kwegqwetha, ukulwa akusesikweni ngokusisiseko. Kuhlala kusekho isiseko senkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye kucatshulwe kwiimeko ezininzi ezilandelayo.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ukukhusela Ukuchasene Nokuziphatha Okubi
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
UErnesto Miranda wabanjwa ePhoenix, eArizona, ngenxa yezityholo zokuqweqwedisa nokudlwengula. Emva kweeyure ezimbini zokuncinwa ngamapolisa, watyikitya isifungo esasisetyenziselwa ukumvalela ityala. Akazange axelelwe ngelungelo lakhe lokuthula okanye ilungelo lakhe kwigqwetha. Amagqwetha kaMiranda aphikisa ngelithi ukuvuma izono kwakunyanzelekile kuba kwakufunyanwe ngaphandle kwezi zilumkiso, kwaphula umgaqo wokukhupha imvume [[FLT: 0]
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
Uluvo lweJaji enkulu uWarren lwaseka ukhuseleko olutsha: amapolisa kufuneka axele amalungelo awo phambi kokuncinwa kwetyala. Isilumkiso esikhoyo ngoku se-fameliar “isilumkiso sikaMiranda” siquka ilungelo lokungathethi, ukuba nantoni na ethethwayo isenokusetyenziswa nxamnye nawe enkundleni, ilungelo lokutyunjwa ligqwetha, kwaye igqwetha liza kumiselwa ukuba awunalo. Inkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba naliphi na imvume efunyenwe ngaphandle kwesi silumkiso ingabikho kwityala.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Miranda v. Arizona watshintsha ngendlela ephawulekayo izenzo zamapolisa kulo lonke ilizwe. Ngelinye ixesha egxekwa ngabanye njengabanyanzelisi bomthetho abasebenzisa izandla, isigqibo saqinisa ukukhuthuka kokuvunywa kwezono nomgaqo wokuba urhulumente makawahlonele amalungelo abantu kwanaxa kufunwa okusesikweni. UMiranda uhlala esoloko engoyena mdlalo uphambili wemidlalo yolwaphulo-mthetho kumabonwakude kodwa iziphumo zayo zokwenene zinzulu: inika umgangatho ocacileyo, onyanzelekileyo wokuzikhusela ekuzinyanzeleni ukunyanzelelana.
Uthando Virginia (1967): Ukuthoba Imiqathango Echasene Neziphene
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
URichard Loving, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, ibhinqa eliNsundu, batshata eWashington, D.C., ngo1958. Xa babuyela kwilizwe labo laseVirginia, bamangalelwa ngokuphula umthetho we-Roudial Perfect karhulumente, owalwalela umtshato osukruqula izinhlanga ngeentlanga. Bacela ityala, bagwetyelwa unyaka entolongweni (xa bekwimeko abawushiyayo urhulumente), baza bafudukela eD.C. Bezimisele ukubuyela ekhaya, abakwalungela ukucel ’ umngeni umthetho ngoncedo lwe-ACLLU.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
IJaji enkulu uWarren kwakhona wabhala uluvo olungqinelanayo. INkundla yalenza lamkeleka ukuba umthetho kaVirginia waphule zombini uKhuselo lwe-Equal Clause kunye ne-"Duetive Procesme Claus e[ weSimente se-14. Inkundla yakwalandula ukuba umthetho wawungachananga kuba wawusebenza ngokulinganayo kuzo zombini iindidi, ingathethi ukuba wenzelwe ukugcina imithetho emhlophe. Isigqibo sathiwe phantsi i-Anti-miscegentivementation kwi 16 yachaza ukuba isenazo iincwadi.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Uthando Virginia waqinisekisa ukuba umtshato ulilungelo elisisiseko kwaye ukwahlulwa kobuhlanga kuphando olufuna uphando. Yasusa imiqobo exhotyiswe ngurhulumente kwimiqobo yomtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo kwaye yamisela umzekelo obalulekileyo kwiimeko zamva ezibandakanya ilungelo lokutshata, kuquka obergefell v. Hodges [2011]. Lo mba uhlala uluphawu olunamandla lokhuseleko lobuqu nolulinganayo loMgaqo-siseko.
IUnited States v. Nixon (1974): Akukho Namnye Ongasentla koMthetho
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
Ngexesha lehlazo laseWatergate, umtshutshisi okhethekileyo warekhoda iiteyipu kunye namaxwebhu encoko phakathi koMongameli Richard Nixon kunye neenkonzo zakhe. UNixon wathi unelungelo lokubulala wakwala ukuhambisana nalo, ephikisa ukuba iikhasethi zazikhuselwe kwingxelo. Eli tyala laveza ukungavisisani okucacileyo phakathi kwengxelo kamongameli yokufihla imfihlo kunye ne-judiary efuna ubungqina ekuphandweni ngezaphuli-mthetho.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
IJaji enkulu uWarren Burger, ummisi womiselo waseNixon, wanikela uluvo olungqinelanayo. INkundla yavuma ilungelo eliphezulu elifanelekileyo lokunxibelelana nomongameli kodwa yathi alinakusetyenziswa ukukhusela ubungqina kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Imfuneko yobungqina kwityala elifanelekileyo yadlula umdla oqhelekileyo wokufihla imfihlo. INkundla yayalela uNixon ukuba ajike iikhaselele, nto leyo eyabonisa ukuba ubandakanyeko kwakhe kwikhusi lokufihla. Ukuphosa, uNixon warhoxa kamsinya emva kwesigqibo.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
I-United States v. Nixon yagxininisa umgaqo osisiseko wokuba uMongameli akangaphezulu kumthetho. Yaseka ukuba ijaji inegunya lokufuna isebe eliphetheyo livelise ubungqina phantsi kwepoopana. Ityala likwamisela umzekelo wengxubusho kamva kumalungelo aphezulu, kuquka ngexesha lolawulo lweClinton noTrump. Iseluvavanyo olunamandla kumandla omongameli.
I-Roe v. Wade (1973): Imfihlo kunye nokuvelisa i-Autonomy
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
UNorma McCorvey, phantsi kobuxoki obuthi “Jane Roe,” wacel ’ umngeni umthetho waseTexas wokuba ukuqhomfa kwaphulwa ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bebhinqa. Ityala laliyinxalenye yeqhinga elibanzi labameli bamalungelo okuzala ukuba iinkundla zivume ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuqhomfa. Ngelo xesha, amazwe amaninzi ayenemithetho ethintelayo yokuqhomfa, kwaye amabhinqa ayesoloko efuna iinkqubo ezingekho mthethweni nezingakhuselekanga.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
Imbono yeJaji uHarry Blackmun yayikholelwa ukuba unelungelo lokukhupha isifuba , eliboniswa yi-The It Procession Clause of the Ineth Amendment, liquka isigqibo sebhinqa sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa kwakhe. INkundla yaseka ulwakhiwo oluthe tye: ngexesha lomendo wokuqala, urhulumente akanakukwazi ukulawula ukuqhomfa; ebudeni beyesibini, uyakwazi ukukhusela impilo yebhinqa; ngexesha lesithathu, emva kokuphumelela, inokuthi ingakuthintela ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bomfazi okanye impilo yakhe.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Roe v. Wade waba sesinye sezigqibo eziphikiswayo kwimbali yaseMerika. Yakuvala ngokusemthethweni ukuqhomfa kulo lonke ilizwe yaye yabangela iimfazwe eziqhubekayo zezobupolitika nezezomthetho nxamnye namalungelo okuzala. Ngoxa isigqibo sapheliswa ngu Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022] [202], ibuyisela umba kumazwe, ilifa likaRoe lihlala lingumqondiso obalulekileyo wokuzibophela komGaqo-siseko. Ityala lalandela elikhuthaza ukukhusela ezinye izigqibo zobuqu, njengelungelo lokusebenzisa ukuthintela nokusebenzisa ulwalamano olunxulumene nolwelo.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umtshato wolinganayo kwizibini ezitshatileyo ezifanayo
Okungasemva kunye nemeko
UJames Obergefell noJohn Arthur babe kunye iminyaka engaphezu kwama-20 xa uArthur wayegula kakhulu. Bahamba besuka eOhio besiya eMaryland, apho umtshato ongokwabelana ngesondo wawusemthethweni, ukuze batshate. Xa uArthur wafayo, iOhio yala ukudwelisa iObergefell njengeqabane eliseleyo kwisiqinisekiso sokufa. Ityala lakhe labekwa kunye nezinye izithintelo ezilucelomngeni kumtshato ongokwasemthethweni kunye nokungavumi ukuvuma ukutshata okungekho mgangxunyeni.
Ukuqiqa Ngokusemthethweni Nomvuzo
Uluvo lukaJaji uAnthony Kennedy uninzi (5/4) lwathi ilungelo lokutshata lilungelo elisisiseko eliqinisekiswe i-Duery Procession Clause kunye ne-Equal Protection Claus [[ loMmiselo weMgaqo-mva we-14. INkubonelo yafumanisa ukuba umtshato ungowona mgangatho, uphawu, nesidima, kwaye izibini ezingo zinye ezimele zifanele zifumane ukunconywe okusemthethweni okufanayo nezibini ezichaseneyo-ne-exx. Isigqibo sabetha phantsi uluxanduva-ku-luxandulo lomtshato kumthetho lwe-1950.
Impembelelo yamalungelo oMgaqo-siseko
Obergefell v. Hodges yaba luloyiso oluguqulayo lwe LGBTQ+ amalungelo. Yazinzisa ingxoxo yesizwe eyahlulayo yaza yanikwa izibini ezidibeneyo ukufikelela emtshatweni, kunye neenzuzo ezisemthethweni kunye nolwamkelo lwasentlalweni. Le meko kwakhona yakhiwe kwimizekelo ukusuka ku Loving v. Virginia kunye United States v. Windsor [2013]]), ibonisa indlela umGaqo wokhuseleko wobuqu nolungelelwano.
Ezinye Iimpawu: UGideon, uNew York Times n/. Sullivan noHeller
UGideon . Wainwright (1963)
Njengoko kuchaziwe, uGidiyon wamisela ilungelo lokunika icebiso kubamangalelwa abangenwanga. Lilungu elibalulekileyo loMphetho-mda-mva kwaye uqinisekisa ubulunga benkqubo yezobulungisa. Ukukhangela nzulu, bona Iqela lencwadi yolwazi ye-Intetho-mthetho .
INew York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Eli tyala laguqula umthetho wenkululeko yokuthetha ngokulinganisela amandla amagosa karhulumente okumangalela ukutywina. Inkundla yathi IsiHlanzi sokuqala sifuna ubungqina bobundlobongela “bobunyani” bokufumana umonakalo kwizenzo zobugwebo eziziswa ngamanani kawonke-wonke. Esi sigqibo salungiselela ukhuseleko olunamandla ekugxekweni kwamagosa karhulumente kwaye saba ligumbi lesiseko lenkululeko yokushicilela.
Isithili saseColumbia v. Heller (2008)
Heller yayilityala lokuqala leNkundla Ephakamileyo ukutolika uHlaziyo olupheleleyo njengokhusela ilungelo lomntu lokuba nesixhobo sokuzikhusela kwindlu. Isigqibo sabetha iWashington, D.C. uvalo lwesandla lompu lwaza kwaza kwadala impikiswano eqhubekayo ngomthetho wompu. Yaqaphela ukuba ekunene akunamiqathango nangasekhohlo ukwenzela imiqathango esengqiqweni.
Isiphelo: UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo
Amatyala abonisa ukulingana komtshato achazwe ngasentla abonisa amandla oMgaqo-siseko okukhula nokutshintsha. Ukusuka ekumiseleni uhlomelo lwezomthetho ku- Marbury v. Madison ukuqaphela ukulingana komtshato owewehlayo v. Hodges[, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba amalungelo esiseko esiseko atyhintshwe ngexesha elithile. Isigqibo ngasinye sibhekisa phambili kwinkululeko yentlalo, yezobupolitika, kunye nomongomome wokuziphatha yolwazi lwaso, kwaye abaninzi baye babangela impikiswano ekrala kwano kwanomva. Kodwa inkqubo yokucaciswa komgaqo womgaqo-mthetho-siseko iqinisekisa ukuba uxwebhu olusunguliweyo luhlala lufanelekile kwiinkulungwane ezininzi. Kubafundi, kunye nabemi beminye, banikela imaphu yenkululeko ebekwe kuyo ngolwazi oluphezulu ngokulinganayo.