Imfundiso ye ekhethelwayo, kodwa ime njengenye yenkqubela-phambili etshintshayo kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Inika umgaqo-nkqubo osemthethweni apho ukhuseleko olufakwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo lusetyenziswa kurhulumente nakuorhulumente basekuhlaleni, kungekuphela kanye, kodwa ityala ngokwetyala, lisebenzisa i-STIR Procect Claus eMcle of the 1450 Demectionment. Phambi kokuba abalawuli bequququzeli be-Rhulumente, iBhili yamaLungelo ibeke urhulumente wesizwe kuphela, ishiya amazwe ekhululekileyo kwinkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Ngaphezu kwendlela yenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla ephakamileyo yakhupha uthotho lwezigqibo oluthiweyo oluthi ngokuthe ngcelele lamalungelo angundoqo kumazwe aseMelika, kungakhathaliseki ukuba aphi nakwe kwezi meko. Ukuqonda okuyimfuneko ngogqesholo-gqesho.

Umhlaba Ophakamileyo: Isizathu Sokuba IBhili Yamalungelo Ehlabathi Ingasebenzi EUnited States

Kwiminyaka yokuqala eli-130 ye-Riphabliki, iBhili yamaLungelo yaqondwa njengendlela yokuzinqanda urhulumente wesizwe kuphela. INkundla Ephakamileyo yenza oku kwacaca Barron v. Baltimore (1833), xa iNkulumbuso John Marshall yathi iSigwebi uJohn Marshall ubambelele kwelokuba ukulungisa kokuqala kweshumi lokuqala “akukho magama abonisa injongo yokuzisebenzisa koorhulumente." Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, uLawulo lweshumi elinesine lwamnyaka lwamvotelelwa ngemithetho ekwalela ukunqanda“ umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo elindelekileyo yomthetho.” I-Arekhobe yaqala ukuncitshiswa ngumthetho [FLD [F:2] SSPARosseans [3] [183], okanye amalungelo athenjiweyo, athenjiweyo, okanye athe agunyaziwe ukuba aphumele amalungelo omthetho.[od , i-Clayirna prognognomesmes]

Kangangamashumi eminyaka iNkundla yala ukusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Kodwa ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, kwaqalisa indlela entsha yokuphuma ``indlela yokukhangela kwi-'ICentury Processol Claus''' ukuchaza ukuba yeyiphi inkululeko esisiseko “efumaneka kwingcamango yenkululeko yomyalelo” kwaye ngoko ibophelelekile kumaphondo.

Ukwaphuka Kokuqala: Intetho Yasimahla Nokuqala Kokhetho

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Isiphelo sotshintsho safika Gitlow v. New York. Benjamin Gitlow, umsoshiyali, wagwetywa phantsi komthetho wesigebengu waseNew York oweza isiphithiphithi sokupapasha isaziso sokuthotywa kwetyala likarhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukuqiniseka kwayo ngemisebenzi. Ingqina ukuba intetho ebuzwayo iphakamisa isisongelo esaneleyo sokuthethelela isohlwayo, kodwa ngokwenza njalo, yavakalisa umgaqo owenziweyo ngaphezu kwesiphumo setyala. Kwisihlandlo sokuqala, iNkuNkundla yavakalisa ukuba “inkululeko yokuthetha kunye nowokushicilela ikhuselwa ngokukhuselwa koMlawuli wokuqala kwiBrijikelezo-o-onke (enzili ikhuselwe phakathi kwamalungelo ongundoqo kunye nokhuseleko lwe-‘e-1950) ngokwendlela elungele ukuhlawulwa yimeko ye-Gene.

Nangona uGitlow ngokwakhe walahleka, isigqibo savulela abo babeza kulwa nemithetho yexesha elizayo echasene namalungelo oMphengululo wokuqala. Saphawula isiqalo esisesikweni sokusebenzisa uGitlown-a ngendlela ekhethekileyo, eyayiza kuvela ngemeko engaphaya kwamashumi eminyaka alandelayo.

Uvavanyo Olusisiseko Lwendlela Yokuzilungisa: UPalko Nophando Lo “Inkululeko Ehlaziyiweyo”

Palko v. Connecticut (1937)

Plat] Platko v.Connecticut, iNkundla yabuza ukuba ukhuseleko lweSihlanu soMthambeko lusebenza kusini na kumaphondo. Ukubhalela inkoliso, uMahluleli uBenjamin Cardozo wayichasa ingcamango yokuba iBhili yamaLungelo iphela ifanele ifakwe irejistame. Endaweni yoko, wasungula uvavanyo “lwemeko-mzintwini” olunokuba lungameleyo, kuphela olo lungelo“ olukwingcamango yenkululeko ephindiweyo" nolusekelwe kwingcamango yesithethe nabantu bethu ngokokuba ifanele ibekwe ngokwesiseko. Phakalthi-12). Uvavanyo olupheleleyo lweNkuvavanywa ukuba ulwaphulo-ngozi lwalungamele lungasetyenziswangasetyenziswangalulo olufanelekileyo kumacandelo [Foctive] [2] [Ftton] [5]

IJaji iHugo Black, ekuphikisaneni okudumileyo, yaphikisa ngokuthi “ngokuba iququzelela i-”""imbono yokuba i-Adry Procesme of 14 Demendment’s Claus yayiyinjongo yokusebenzisa lonke iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Indawo yoMnyama ayizange ilawule uninzi, kodwa ukunyanzelisa kwakhe ngamandla kwanceda ukunyanzela iNkundla yamatyala ukuya kulwazi olubanzi lwamalungelo alo.

Izigqibo Ezibalaseleyo Ezakha Imfundiso Yale Mihla Yokunxibelelana

kufuphi noV. Minnesota (1931) – Inkululeko YePress

Kwiminyaka emithandathu emva kweGitlow, iNkundla yaquka igalelo loMphetho wokuqala woshicilelo ku-[FLT] Near v. Minnesota[FL:1]. Eli tyala lawisa umthetho karhulumente ovumela ukuvalwa kwangaphambili “kobubi, ukuhlazeka, kunye nokunyelisa” amaphephandaba. INkundla yayisithi inkululeko yamaphephandaba ekuthinteleni ulawulo yayiyinkululeko engundoqo ekhuselwe yi-Stional Procesting Claus. Esi sigqibo sanika umda wayo wokuqala ocacileyo nxamnye nocuphico.

DeJonge v. Oregon (1937) – Inkululeko yeNdibano

Denge v. Oregon, iNkundla yaquka ilungelo lokuQhubela uLawulo lokuqala ukuhlanganisana ngoxolo. Eli tyala lalibandakanya intlanganiso yamaKomanisi yeQela elaphulwa ngamagunya e-Oregon. INkundla yagqiba ngamxhelo mnye ukuba ilungelo lendibano liyinkululeko engundoqo, kwaye loo majelo akanakuqhekeza kwintlanganiso yezopolitiko yoxolo.

Cantwell . Connecticut (1940) – Ukuzilolonga Konqulo Ngokukhululekileyo

Cantwell v. Connecticut yaquka igalelo lokuzilolonga kokuqala ngokukhululekileyo. Ityala lalibandakanya amaNgqina kaYehova awayebanjiwe ngenxa yokucela iminikelo ngaphandle kwephepha-mvume nokudlala irekhodi egxeka iCawa yamaKatolika. Inkundla yathi i-ST Proces Clause ikhusela ilungelo lokukholelwa nokuqhelisa unqulo lomntu, kuphela ngokungemiqathango encinane yokukhusela nolungelelwano lukawonke wonke.

Ibhodi yemfundo (1947) – Ukumiswa kukaClaus

Ingxelo yokumiselwa yafakwa kwi Everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Kwisigqibo esingu 5764, iNkundla yaseNew Jersey yaxhasa umthetho owahlawula abazali ngemali yebhasi kwizikolo ze-parochial, kodwa kwakhona yasebenzisa ummiselo wokumiswa kwemithetho kumazwe okokuqala. Uluvo lweJaji Black lwathi ngokudumileyo “uMphetho wokuqala wakha udonga phakathi kwecawa norhulumente” kunye nolokuba“ olo donga lufanele lugcinwe luphezulu kwaye lunganyuswanga-juqu. U-Herson uhlala engumzekelo wesiseko wecawase.

IMap v. Ohio (1961) – UMthetho wesine noMthetho weExclussion

Mhlawumbi esinye sezigqibo eziphambili eziqukiweyo sesokuqukunjelwa kwaba Mapp v. Ohio. Ikhaya likaDollree Mapp lakhangelwa ngamapolisa ngaphandle kwemvume, kwaye wagwetywa ngenxa yokuba nezinto ezingcolileyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawuguqula umgaqo wesiHlaziyo wesine yawukhusela ekuphengululeni nasekuxhwalekeni, kunye nomthetho wokubhaxa (okusetyenziswa kobungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni), isebenza kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Ngaphambi kweMap, amatheta, anokuthi asebenzise ubungqina kwanokuba i-map yafunyanwa ngokungekho mthethweni. Emva kweMap, umthetho owenziweyo waba ngumgangalo womthetho womthetho.

UGideon (1963) – Ilungelo Loluleko

Gideon v. Wainwright wakholelwa ukuba isiqinisekiso seSithandathu soMphengululo-Mdangaliso segqwetha ngabamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho sisebenza kumatyala karhulumente. UClarence Earl Gideon, ummangalelwa olihlwempu eFlorida, waye wakhanyelwe kwigqwetha lenkundla emiselweyo. Inkundla yavumelana ukuba ilungelo lokucebisa lilo “ukucalula nokunyanzeleka kwetyala elilungileyo” kwaye ngenxa yoko yaquka ngamatyala eMsebenzi yeNkqubo yoLawulo kaNombolo. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela ekudalweni kwenkqubo yokhuselo kawonke ngaphaya kweUnited States.

Miranda .Arizona (1966) – Self à Incrimination

Ilungelo loMgqibelo weSihlanu nxamnye nokwabelana ngesiqu sayo ngokwayo lafakwa kwi imanda v. Arizona, eyadibanisa ilungelo loMphengululo weSithandathu wokucebisana kumongo woncinwa kwamapolisa. INkundla yafuna ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ukuze yazise abakrokreli bamalungelo abo. Ngoku ngoku u-Miranda. [Ngaphambi kokuncinwa kwe-'umthetho we-orhulumente, yasetyenziswa kumazwe ngokomthetho osemthethweni, ngokusebenzisa imigaqo yomthetho womthetho wobugqeba kwaye ihlale ingumthetho.

Ukuqhubeka Nenkqubo: Ukuhlaziywa Kohlaziyo Lwamva

UDuncan . Louisiana (1968) – Icala Elifanelekileyo Eliya Kuchotshelwa Kwityala LaseJury

Ilungelo leSithandathu soHlaziyo loMphetho-mthetho kwityala labagwebi lafakwa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho [[FLT: 0] ku- . Louisiana. INkundla yathi ilungelo lokuchotshelwa ligweba kumatyala anzulu olwaphulo-mthetho libalulekile kwaye libophelelekile kumatyala. Esi sigqibo sabangela iinguqu ezinkulu: amatyala awayesele evavanywe ngaphambili amatyala amancinane ngaphandle kwejaji.

KwiGault (1967) – Inkqubo Efaneleyo YeJuveniles

Nangona ingeyiyo imeko enyulu kwingqiqo eqhelekileyo, kwiGault isebenzise ukhuseleko lweNkqubo kaClaus-(kuquka ilungelo lokucebisa, ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwalo, nelungelo lokuthetha namangqina ) ukumangalela ubuhlolo bolutsha. Yabonisa ukuba imfundiso equlunqiweyo yadlulela ngaphaya kwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho endala.

ISixeko saseChicago (2010) – ISindululo sesibini

Kwiminyaka emininzi, uHlaziyo lwesibini lwalungasetyenziswa kumaphondo. INkundla yatshintsha ukuba [kuFLT:0] McDonald v. IsiXeko saseChicago, esidibanisa uLawulo lwesibini loMphetho-mda wamalungelo okugcina nokuthwala iintambo zoziquququququ ze-(gradefenense). Uluvo lobuninzi lwaluxhomekeke kwi-"SEARRRC], ukuba ekunene “kuyinkani kwecebo lethu lenkululeko” kwaye“ kusekelwe ngokunzulu kule mbali nesithethe sohlanga." McDonald iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe neyongalonke imele iwuthobele umphezulu wokuphatha [[FLD:2] i- Hellder v[FLT].[FLD]

Impembelelo yokuNcokonyela okuKhethayo: Ukwenziwa okufanayo kunye noManyano

Ukukhethwa kwemithetho-siseko yesizwe kubangele iinguqulelo eziphawulekayo kurhulumente waseMelika. Ngaphambi kokuba le mfundiso igcinwe, amalungelo ommi angahluka kakhulu ukusuka kwilizwe ukuya kwelinye. Namhlanje, uninzi lweSigxina samaLungelo sikhuselwa ngokunyanzelekileyo kurhulumente nakurhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Isiphumo sikomkhulu ngakumbi inkululeko engokomGaqo-siseko kulo lonke ilizwe, ngoxa amazwe ehlala ekhululekile ukunikela ukhuseleko olungakumbi ukuba akhetha.

Le mfundiso ikwalungelelanisa ukuvalwa kwetyala kunye notshintsho lolwandiso. Ngokubandakanya amalungelo kwityala eliyi-28bypreses, iNkundla ingavavanya ilungelo ngalinye kumongo wayo wembali nosebenzayo. Indlela epheleleyo yokuququzelela iJaji eMnyama ibiya kuba ilula, kodwa iNkundla iye yakhetha inkqubela eqhubekayo, eqinisiweyo enikezelwa kukuqulukwa ngokukhetha.

Kuye kwavela imigaqo emininzi kwezi zigqibo:

  • Amalungelo angundoqo ngalawo “asekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko eyalelweyo” kwaye asetyenziswa kumazwe ngenkqubo elindelekileyo ka Claus.
  • Asingawo onke amalungelo kuBhili yamaLungelo aye afakwa. Umzekelo, iSihlalo soHlaziyo (ikomkhulu lamajoni) kunye nemfuneko enkulu yeSindululo seNkqutyana sokugweba amacala ayisetyenziswanga kumaphondo.
  • [[Udibaniso:0] lukhetha , hayi iyonke. sekunene ngakunye makufunyanwe phambi kokuba ibophelele amatyala.
  • Umlinganiselo wasekunene [ xa usetyenziswa kumazwana kusenokuba yinto efanayo naxa isetyenziswa kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, kodwa iNkundla ngamanye amaxesha ilungisa umgangatho ukwenzela ukuhlalisa izilangazelelo zikarhulumente.

Kubafundi nakubaphengululi bomthetho-siseko, umgca wokuququzelela amatyala unikela uphando olunzulu ngendlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo eye yalawula ngayo uxinezeleko phakathi kobunyhadala besizwe kunye nozimele-zimele. Izigqibo aziyoziganeko zembali nje eziphambili; zihlala zisisiseko samalungelo angoku, ukusuka ekuthetheni ngokukhululekileyo ukuya ekuthengeni imipu.

Ucelomngeni Nekamva Lokuzikhethela

Ngelixesha intsebenziswano ekhethayo ngoku ibekwe kakuhle, imibuzo isele ikhona. INkundla ayizange yamkele i-metric ecacileyo yoko kwenza “isiseko,” kwaye abagxeki baphikisa ukuba umgangatho ungasetyenziswa ukufikelela iziphumo ezifunekayo. Unyuko lwe- “iimfuno okanye ugonyo” lucebisa ukuba ezinye izigwebo zikulungele ukuvavanywa ukuba uMsebenzi ka Claus usisithutho esifanelekileyo. Ngokudibene nobugcisa obutsha, ngokobuncinci obukhoyo obufana nobobukho beNkungabo obuthiwe yiNkunga (]]Mcrand ]]] icebisa ukuba ezinye izigwebo zikulungele ukuphinda-phinda umva ukuba ngaba uMsebenzi wenkqubo kaClausscreas., uk-ongeza ubugcisa kunye nobugcisa obutsha, ngokobugcijijijiyo obukhoyo, ngokokufuna ukuphinda-ka kwamanani (njengokusetyenziswa kweNxotyiselwa kobuGene) ukuba ngaba ukhuseleko lwesiGene.

Ngonyaka wama-2022, Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization iphendulile [[FLT] Roe v. Wade kunye [[FLT]] ne[FLT]] Plateathoriation v. Case[, ibambe ukuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa alisekelwanga kwimbali yohlanga kwaye ngaloo ndlela alikho ilungelo elisisiseko elikhuselweyo yi-Claske. Isigqibo sibonisa ukuba ukuququzelela akuyiyo enye indlela engaphezulu-62, i-vatet'; iNkundla inokuthi ivume ukuba ibikhuselwe kakuhle ukuba ibikhuselwe ngaphambili. Oku kukhuthaza ukuba kunokuthi kukhuselwe nangawakho amanye amalungelo embalini aphinda aphinda-phindaniswe phantsi kohlalutwe.

Sekunjalo, imfundiso engundoqo yokuququzelela ihlala iqinile kwimithetho-mthetho yaseMerika. Izigqibo eziphawulwe ngasentla ziyaqhubeka zisebenza njengesiseko somthetho-siseko. Baqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko olugcinelwe abo baqhubana norhulumente wesizwe ngoku lukhusela wonke ummi ekuphanjweni ngurhulumente nangamagunya asekuhlaleni.

Ukufunda Okungakumbi Noovimba

Kubo bafuna ukuhlolisisa ezi meko ngobunzulu obungakumbi, ezi mithombo zilandelayo zinikela uhlalutyo oluhle:

Ibali lokuqukumbela ngokukhetha libali lolwandiso olucothayo kodwa oluzinzileyo lwenkululeko yomgaqo-siseko. Isigqibo ngasinye (ngokuba sibandakanya ilungelo lokucebisa, umthetho wokususa, okanye ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo) /isiqinisekiso sokuba isithembiso seBhili yamaLungelo asiphelelanga eWashington, D.C. Singummi ngamnye, kwiphondo ngalinye, njengekhusi ekuxhatshazweni kwamandla karhulumente.