Ingqwalasela yeziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka isakhiwo sikarhulumente wesizwe nomthetho ophakamileyo welo lizwe. Noko ke, abaLamli baqonda ukuba uxwebhu oluthe ngqo alunakukwazi ukuthetha ngemfuneko nganye yexesha elizayo okanye isisongelo senkululeko. Ngoko ke, baquka inkqubo yokulungisa phantsi kweSigqeba V, bevumela umGaqo-siseko ukuba uzenzeke ngoxa ufuna ukuvumelana okubanzi. Ukususela ngowe-17.89, 11000 utshintsho olungaphezulu kwewaka linye luye lwanconywa kwiBhunga, kodwa ngu 27 kuphela oluye lwagunyaziswa. Ishumi lokuqala, i-Bhili yamaLungelo, laziswa njengeSigxina samaLungelo, lavunywa ngo1791111 kwaye libumba izikhundla zokhuseleko ezichasene norhulumente. Ukusukela koko, ukuguqula iprojectives projectives projectives projectivessssssssssssssss (earywations) ezikhoyo zabemi banamhlanje bamazwe abaphathi bamalizwe basekuhlaleni.

Inkqubela-nkqubo yokulungisa ngokwayo kunzima ngabom: ukulungisa okucetyiweyo makudlule zombini izindlu zeBhunga ngobuninzi obubini-3, kwangoko kugunyaziswa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezintathu ezineziqu (okanye iindibano zikarhulumente). Le ntsimbi iphezulu iqinisekisa ukuba kuphela utshintsho olubanzi, inkxaso ehlala ihleliyo luba yinxalenye yoMgaqo-siseko. Kodwa kanye isiqinisekiso sokulungisa sithwala ubunzima obupheleleyo bomthetho-siseko kwaye sinokutshintshwa kuphela ngomnye umva. Kubafundi nabafundisi ngokufanayo, ingcaciso le nkqubo ibalulekileyo kuba ichaza isizathu sokuba amalungelo athile akhuselwe iinkulungwane ngexa abanye ongezelelwe emva kwemilo ende.

IBhili Yamalungelo: Ukuqwalasela Ngokunzulu Uhlaziyo Lokuqala LweziHlomelo Ezilishumi

IBhili yamaLungelo yazalwa ngokuxhalatyiswa yiAnti-Federalist, eyayisoyika ukuba umGaqo-siseko omtsha wanika amandla amaninzi kurhulumente ombindi kwaye wawungenazo izikhuseli ezicacileyo kubantu ngabanye. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni ethandabuza, wacwangcisa izindululo ezisekelwe kwimithetho-siseko yangaphambili kunye neBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo. Isiphumo yaba kukubekwa kwemiqathango kumandla karhulumente, kamva yadluliselwa kumazwe ngenkqubo efanelekileyo yeGqizeGawula-145. Umthetho ngamnye weshumi lokuqala uthetha ngebala elithile lenkululeko. Apha sihlolisisa iinkcukacha, kuquka neziphumo ezingundoqo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo eziye zabumba intsingiselo yazo.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Inkululeko Entlanu

UHlaliso Lokuqala lusoloko luthathwa njengolubalulekileyo kuba lukhusela iindlela abemi abanokucel ’ umngeni ngazo urhulumente. Luqinisekisa inkululeko yonqulo (kokubini igalelo lemfundo kunye nerejista yasimahla), inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yokushicilela, ilungelo lokuhlanganisa ngoxolo, nelungelo lokucela urhulumente ukubuyisela izikhalazo. Iimeko ezifana ne- uLong Virginia Board yemfundo yemfundo v. [i-1969] I-Barnette[ [19343]) iqinisekisa ukuba abafundi abanako ukunyanzeleka ukukhahlela iflegi, ngoxa [[FLT2] v. Mossine Isikolo soluntu soluntu [Foffindel [FFFF] [FLT] [3] [1969] abafundi abasunguli bemisela “inkululeko yabo yokuthetha okanye amalungelo eenze imicimbi kwimicimbi yesikolo.[196]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

ISiphendu sesibini sithi: “I-Militia, emiselwe kakuhle, eyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente okhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Iizixhobo, ayizukuphazanyiswa.” Kangangamashumi eminyaka, intsingiselo yayo yancinwa, kunye neengxoxo zokuba ikhusela ilungelo elidibeneyo elibotshelelwe kwinkonzo yobucuphi okanye umntu onelungelo lomntu ngamnye. IHeller [2001], iNkundlalelo lwesibini lokuHlalisa ilawula ukuba umntu unelungelo lokufumana umpungeno olusemthethweni, njengoziphethe ngokwalo kwikhaya. INkundla kamva yasebenzisa oku kuchazwe kumagqabaza [FL: MM] [2001] [2005], iNkundlekalk.[2010] [ii-DT] izigwebo zompulathi ezithelelwayo ezitheneyo, kwaye iqhubekeka kakhulu, izigwebo ezitheneyo ezitheneyo.

Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu: Amajoni Alungelelanisiweyo

ISiHlayi seSiHlaliso seSithathu sikwalela ukuba urhulumente alwe kumajoni angenayo ikota kumakhaya abantu ngexesha loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume yomnini-yo, yaye ngexesha lemfazwe ngendlela emiselwe ngumthetho kuphela. Le mithetho, nangona inqabile, ibonisa umsindo woMseki woqheliselo lwemikhosi yezindlu enyanzelekileyo yaseBritani. Isengumqondiso ophilayo wamalungelo abantu abazimeleyo nomgaqo wokuba umkhosi ungaphantsi kwegunya lasekuhlaleni.

UMthetho Wesine: Ukufuna Nokuzimela

IsiHlanzo sesine sikhusela “ukuphengulula okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula” kwaye sifuna ukuba imvume isekelwe kwisizathu esinokwenzeka kwaye ichaze ngokukhethekileyo indawo eza kuphendwa kunye nabantu okanye izinto eziza kubanjwa. Oku kulungiswa kungundoqo kwiingxoxo zangoku ezimalunga nokujongwa kwamapolisa, ukhuseleko lwezobucala, kunye nokuqokelelwa kwedata. I-Carpenter v. United States[FLT] [2088], iNkumbuso omkhulu wawisa umthetho wokuba ufune isiqinisekiso sokufumana iingxelo ze-cell phone, ukuqaphela ukuba ugcino-lwazi lwezimvo lungatyhila iinkcukacha ezisemgangathweni zobomi bomntu. Umfundisi uyakwazi ukuhlolisisa indlela umgaqo wesine osebenza ngayo kwicellne, ukukhangela isitshixo, nokuvava isikolo seziyobisi.

UHlaliso lweNtloko: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

UHlaliso lweNhlanu luquka ukhuseleko oluninzi: isalathisi esikhulu solwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu, ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini, ilungelo elichasene nokuzikhusela ngokwaso (“ukuzithethelela okwesihlanu”), ukuqinisekisa inkqubo efunekayo yomthetho, nokwalela ukuthatha impahla yobuqu yokusetyenziswa nguwonke wonke ngaphandle kwentlawulo (ummandla ophezulu). Inkqubo efunekayo yokuchophela ityala ibaluleke ngokukhethekileyo ekudluliseleni uVill of Rights ukhuseleko lwamagunya kumazwe adlula kunyaka weshumi elinesine. Ityala elidumile .Mirand v. Arizona[FLT:] [196] [196] amapolisa aye kufuneka azise izikrotiso zokunga ekunene kwawo ukuba ahlale buthule kwaye abe negqwetham ngexesha lokuncina.

IsiHlanziso Sesithandathu: Amalungelo Afanelekileyo Etyala

IsiHlamlisi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza kunye noluntu ngokubanzi liququzelelwa ngabachopheli-tyala abangakhethiyo, ilungelo lokuxelelwa ngezityholo, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, ilungelo lokunyanzela amangqina ukuba anikele ubungqina, nelungelo lokunika icebiso. Ilungelo lokucebisa lanwetshwa ngokuphawulekayo Gideon v. Wainwright [1963], elifuna ukuba kunikelwe igqwetha kubamangalelwa abangenakukwazi ukuhlawula omnye kwiimeko zetyala. Lo mgaqo ngoku wanwebela kwiimeko ezininzi eziphosakeleyo, uqinisekisa ukuba ubutyebi abulugqibi umgangatho wokusesikweni.

Ukulungiswa Kwehlabathi: Iimvavanyo Zobugwebi

UHlaziyo lweSebert lugcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni apho ixabiso lempikiswano lingaphaya kwama-20 eerandi. Ngoxa oku kulungiswa kungasetyenziswanga kumazwe (kuphela iinkundla zikarhulumente), kubonisa inkolelo yoMseki yokuba abemi abaqhelekileyo, kungekhona abagwebi nje kuphela, bafanele babe nendima ekucombululeni iimpikiswano. Oku kulungisa kugxininisa ukubaluleka kokuthabatha inxaxheba kwezentlalo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

ISindululo seNkqutyana esibhozo sikwalela ukusetyenziswa kwebheyile egqithisileyo, ukuhlawuliswa ngokugqithiseleyo, nesohlwayo esigqithisileyo nesingaqhelekanga. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yatolika intetho ethi “ukungalawuleki kunye nengaqhelekanga” ukuguqula imilinganiselo yebutho labantu yokuziphatha okuhle. Rhoper v. Simmons[ [2005] [iNkundla], ithintela ukubulawa kwabenzi bolwaphulo-mthetho ababengaphantsi kweshumi elinesibhozo ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho lwabo. Kutsha, iNkuNkundla iye yalwa nomgaqo wobomi ngaphandle kwe-paradole yolwaphulo-mthetho abancinane nokusetyenziswa kweendlela ezithile zokubulala. La matyala anikela izinto ezityebileyo kwingxubukiso malunga nesohlwayo entle malunga nenceba.

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesi - 1000: Amalungelo Angenazintlukwano

ISichithi soMgaqo-siseko sithi ukudweliswa kwamalungelo athile kuMgaqo-siseko akuzukuthathwa njengokukhanyela okanye ukuhluza abanye abantu. Oku kulungisa kwakucetyelwe ukudambisa uloyiko olunokuthi lubonise ukuba ezo zinto zinokuchazwa ukuba zizo zodwa ezikhuselweyo. Kuchaziwe kwiimeko ezibandakanya ilungelo lokufumana yimfihlo (ngokungenakuthanda ukuba ku Griswld v.Connecticut[, 1965) kwaye kuqhubeke kwaziswa impikiswano engomalungelo angakhankanywwanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo, njengamalungelo okungachazwangachazwanga ngokucacileyo kwi-mdla nengqibelelo.

Uhlaziyo Lweshumi: Umanyano Namalungelo KaRhulumente

Umthetho weSigqibo seSiphendu seshumi (okanye abantu) onke amagunya awawaphathiswanga urhulumente worhulumente womGaqo-siseko, okanye awalelwe kumazwe. Oku kulungisa kubandakanya umgaqo wolawulo, owahlula amandla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente. Ukutolika kwawo kuye kwaba sembindini kumatyala amaninzi eNkundla ePhakamileyo, ukusuka [okanye abantu] kumNkundla we-MCulloch v. Maryland [18] [19] ku-United States. Lopez (1995], ebekelwe umda wamandla orhulumente phantsi korhwebo lukaClaus. Ukuqonda ukuchasana kweshumi lokuLandelela kunceda abafundi ukuba baqonde ukuba babe nemithetho yabo, kunye neenkundla zelizwe.

Uhlaziyo Olulandelayo Olwawachaza Ngokutsha Amalungelo EMerika

Emva kweBhili yamaLungelo, umGaqo-siseko utshintshiwe izihlandlo ezilishumi elinesixhenxe. Ezinye zezi zilungiso zobume (ezifana nokulandelelana komongameli okanye unyulo lwee-senator), ngelixa ezinye zandisa amalungelo abantu kunye nokuthathi-nxaxheba kwezobupolitika. Ngeli ngezantsi zizona ziphendulo zibalulekileyo ezikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ngqo, kunye nomongo wembali kunye nokubaluleka kwayo kwale mihla.

I - 13, Ishumi elinesine Ne - 15 Zokuhlaziywa: Uhlaziyo Lokwakhiwa Kwezihlaziyiso

I-Harth Amendment (1868) yanikwa injongo yokuphelisa ubukhoboka nokukhusela amalungelo alinganayo kubemi base-Afrika. UMthetho-Mda-mathu owenziweyo (1865) waphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nobukhoboka obuzenzekelayo “ngaphandle kokuba isohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho apho iqela lalo liza kugwetywa ngokusemthethweni.” IsiHlamkiso seshumi elinesine (1868) sanika bonke abantu imvume yobukhoboka okanye ubuzwe eUnited States kunye nokuqinisekisa ukukhuselwa ngokulingana kwemithetho, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye namalungelo okanye ukugobelwa kobuhlanga. I-Gribhithisi esilinganayo ibe sisiseko sokulawula amalungelo azimeleyo esizwe ([[[Foct:]] Brown. ibhodi yemfundo yezemfundo [FLD], 1954, i-565], kunye noluvo olulinganayo. I-Genediyo-18) yalwaneyokuthembisa isithembiso soluvo olumalunga se-18

IReconstructives isasebenza nanamhlanje. Igalelo leHdBth Amendment elichasene neSindululo seHlabathi liye lagxekwa ngokuvumela ukunyanzelwa kwentolongo. UMthetho ohlaziyiweyo weshumi elinesine uyaqhubeka usisithutho sokwandisa amalungelo abantu, abaphambukeli, nabantu abaneziphene. UMthetho weSihlaziyi weshumi elinesihlanu ungowona uphambili wemfazwe eqhubekayo engomthetho we-ID, i-gerrymanindering, kunye nokhuthulo lophando. Abafundisi-o bangalandela umgca ngqo ukusuka kwezi ziphendumiso zeziganeko zangoku, ukubonisa indlela uMgaqo-siseko omisiweyo omi ngoluxwebhu oluphilayo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwesi - 19: Umvuzo Wamabhinqa

Igunyaziswa ngo-1920 emva kwamashumi eminyaka yokusebenza komsebenzi wobuGawulayo, uMphengululo weshumi elinesithoba uyalela ukukhanyelwa kwelungelo lokuvota ngenxa yesondo. Oku kulungiswa kwezigidi zamabhinqa, nangona kusenziwa, imiqobo efana novavanyo lokufunda nokubhala kunye nerhafu yokuvota kwaqhubeka ukuphelisa amalungelo okuvota apheleleyo kuwo onke amabhinqa angazange aphele ngo-1920; oku kuqhubekeka kuhambela phambili kumbutho wamalungelo abantu nangaphaya koko. Ulungiso lwe-Gawula-mthetho luyimislanisa indlela utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko oqhubekekayo olubangelwa ngayo kukulungiselela nokuzinziswa kwengca nengcinezelo yezobupolitika.

Uhlaziyo lweMaphu amabini anesine: Irhafu ebhengezayo

Ngo-1964, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavala ukusetyenziswa kwerhafu yonyulo kunyulo lwamazwe. Iirhafu zokubhijela zazisetyenziswe kakhulu kumaphondo aseMazantsi ukucinezela abavoti abamnyama emva kokuvuselelwa kwe-Exchange. Nangona intengiso isetyenziswe kuphela kunyulo lwamagunya, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagatya iirhafu kunyulo lukarhulumente njengokwaphulwa kwengxelo elinganayo yokhuseleko ( Virginia Board of Evolutions, 1966]). Le ntmentment ibonisa indlela isilungiso somGaqo-siseko esijoliswe kuyo kamva esinokuyisusa ngayo isixhobo socalulo.

Uhlaziyo lwama-20: Ukuthotywa kweNkcubeko

I-Amakumi amabini anesithathu IsiHlalisi soMphengululo wamanzi wanciphisa iminyaka yokuvota ukusuka kwi-21 ukuya kwi-18. Uvuselelo lwavela kwimfazwe yaseVietnam, xa amadodana ayebizelwa ukuba alwe kodwa engakwazi ukuvota. Utshintsho lwadlula ngesantya esiphawulekayo, lubonisa ukuvumelana kwesizwe ukuba ukuba umdala ngokwaneleyo ukuba uyakwazi ukulwa. Namhlanje, uLawulo olungamashumi amabini aneshumi elinesithoba ludla ngokuxutyushwa kwiingxoxo zokuthoba ubudala ukuya kutsho kunyaka we-16, ingakumbi kunyulo lwasekuhlaleni, ingakumbi kunyulo lwasekuhlaleni, kunye nokuzibandakanya kolutsha nezobupolitika.

Ukuhlaziywa koMgaqo-siseko wokufundisa

Uluntu olufundileyo lungawona aphambili ekulondolozeni amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Abafundisi banendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni iinguqulelo ebomini kubafundi. Kunokuba bacengceleze nje umbhalo, abafundi bafanele babandakanyeke kwiingcamango, iingxabano, kunye nokuchaza okunxulumene nenkqubo nganye enxulumene nomgaqo-siseko. Nazi iindlela eziluncedo zokufundisa eklasini.

Imithombo esisiseko

Abafundi baye bafunda imibhalo yokuqala yezilungiso zentengiso baze bazithelekise needrafti zokuqala. Umzekelo, uMphengululo wokuqala ekuqaleni usetyenziswa kuphela kwiBhunga, kodwa namhlanje udibanisa onke amaqumrhu karhulumente. Uhlalutyo lwamaphepha obuFederal kunye neencwadi ezilwa noLungelo-Federali zingatyhila isizathu sokuba kucetyiswe ukubuyiselwa koMgaqo-siseko ngamnye. Ugcino-zincwadi lweSizwe lunika imibhalo yamanani ekhululekileyo yoMgaqo-siseko kunye neSisombululo samaLungelo esisetyenziswa edidini.

Amatyala Aphakamileyo ENkundla

Ulungiso ngalunye luyilwe lutoliko lwezomthetho. Yabela amaqela abafundi ukuba aphengulule ityala elingundoqo aze achaze izibakala, umbuzo womgaqo-siseko, ingqiqo yeNkundla, kunye nesiphumo. Oku akufundisi nje kuphela ukulungisa kodwa kudala ukucingisisa ngokungqongqo ngokuqiqa okusemthethweni. Umzekelo, ufundo Tas v. Johnson [1999] malunga nokutshisa iflegi kunceda abafundi babone imida yentetho yenkululeko yokuthetha.

Dibanisa kwizehlo zaNgoku

Phantse wonke umjikelo weendaba uqulethe ibali elichaphazela ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko: ukuqhankqalaza ngokuphandwa kwamapolisa (Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu), ingxoxo ngemali yezephulo (UMthetho wokuqala), ucelomngeni lokuvota imiqathango (weshumi elinesihlanu, weshumi elinesithoba, wesi-20-Soundting Amendu). Ukukhuthaza abafundi ukuba bazise amanqaku eendaba nokuchaza ukupheliswa okufanelekileyo. Oku kubonisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko awuyombali kodwa uyindlela ephilayo yokuchasana namhlanje.

Sebenzisa imfaniso kunye nokudlala indima

Ziphathe indibano yomgaqo-siseko apho abafundi kufuneka bacebe ukutshintsha okuthile okutsha baze baphikisane nako. Ngawaphi amalungelo abaya kuwathetha? Ngawaphi amalungelo abaya kuwakhusela? Oku kunyanzelisa abafundi ukuba baqwalasele imilinganiselo yokukhuphisana, baqwalasele inkqubo yokulungisa, baqiqe impikiswano ecacileyo. Okanye, khawube nengxoxo ethethwayo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ethetha ngamalungelo athelekelelwayo abandakanya ukuphangwa kweseli ngexesha lophendlo lwesikolo.

Iingxaki Zangexesha Elizayo Neembambano Eziqhubekayo

Phezu kwayo nje isiseko sokhuseleko, imibandela emininzi yomgaqo-siseko ayikapheliswa. Ubugcisa obutsha, imigaqo eguquguqukayo yentlalo, nokuqondwa okuguquguqukayo kokusesikweni kusoloko kuvavanya imida yezotshintsho. Umzekelo, ukhuseleko loMphengululo weSine ongenakuqiqa olugcinwe kwinkcazelo egcinwe ngamaqela esithathu, njengokugcina amafu kunye nesixhobo sokugcina ulwazi lwentlalo-ntlalo. Ingxelo yenkululeko yokuthetha ekhululekileyo ivavanywa yi-intanethi yokuthetha intiyo, intembeko, kunye nendima yamaplatton azimele afana noTwitter noFacebook. Ulungiso lwesibini luyaqhubeka lusenza inkqubela ephezulu yemibango yokuhlasela izixhobo, ukhuthulo lwezinzo, ushishino lwezihlolo, kunye nemithetho efihlakeleyo.

Ukongezelela, kukho incoko eqhubekayo ekufuneka ilungiswe okanye yandiswe. Abanye abaphengululi baxhasa utshintsho olutsha lokuthetha ngephulo lezemali, ngoxa abanye bephikisana nelungelo elicacileyo lokuzimela okanye inkululeko yokuzala. Ukuqonda inkqubo yokulungisa ngokwayo kungundoqo wokuqonda isizathu sokuba izicelo ezinjalo zidibane. Iingxoxo malunga neElectoral College, imida yexesha lomongameli, kunye nephondo leWashington D.C. zibandakanya ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko okucetyiweyo okucetyiweyo kodwa okungagunyaziswanga.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Eliphilayo LeziHlomelo ZomGaqo-siseko

Iziphendu ezingamashumi amabini anesixhenxe zomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. azizizo nje izinto zembali ezikhoyo qha, zisiqinisekiso esisebenzayo senkululeko eqhubeka ibumba ubomi baseMerika. Ukusuka kwinkululeko yokuthetha ukhuseleko nxamnye namandla karhulumente onyanzelo, ezi zindululo zikhusela amalungelo anokwenza ukuba kubekho ulawulo-mpukane. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukufunda ngezi zilungiso kukusetyenziswa kwegunya lentlalo. Inika izixhobo ukuqaphela xa amalungelo esongelwa, ulwazi lokuxhasa utshintsho, nobulumko bokuqonda ukuba izithembiso zomGaqo-siseko zifuna ukuhlala zilindile.

Njengokuba kuvela iingxaki ezintsha, inkqubo yokulungisa isahlala ikhona ukuhlangabezana nazo, njengokuba injalo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Noko ke, eyona nto ikhusela inkululeko yomgaqo-siseko asikokubhala ngokwako kodwa kubemi abanolwazi nabatsha abafuna ukuhlonelwa. Ngokufunda ngokucokisekileyo nokucombulula nokuxubusha iingcamango zabo ngokukhululekileyo, abafundisi- ntsapho banokunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba isizukulwana esilandelayo sikulungele ukukhusela nokwandisa inkululeko esisiseko sohlanga.