Iingqinipho neengqiniba aziyongcamango yothuli evela kwincwadi yezentlalo-ntle, zizinto ezisebenzayo, imihla ngemihla ezigcina nawuphi na umntu okanye iqela elithile lingasebenzisi igunya elingathintelwayo eUnited States. Kubemi, ukuqonda indlela ezi migaqo-nkqubo eziyimfuneko ngayo ekuqondeni xa izenzo zikarhulumente zisemthethweni, xa zigqitha, nendlela yokuthabatha inxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo ekubekeni iinkokeli ezinokuphendula. Inkqubo esemthethweni ngaphandle kokuhlola nokuzilinganisela inokuphambukisa kwi-depression; umntu onobuchule bokuhlola ngamandla ukhusela inkululeko aze agcine umthetho. Eli nqaku lichaza iingcamango ezingundoqo, imisebenzi yehlabathi lokwenene, kunye nezibopho ukwenzela abahlali, ukuzoba nengxelo kwimbali nezicelo zale mihla.

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States umisela amasebe amathathu alinganayo karhulumente: uwiso-mthetho (umongameli kunye namaqumrhu ombuso), onegunya (umongameli kunye namaqumrhu), kunye nomthetho (iinkundla zezolawulo). Isebe ngalinye linamagunya ahlukeneyo, kodwa ngalinye linazo izixhobo zokulinganisela ezinye. Olu lwabeko lwenzelwe ukuthintela ukubekwa kwegunya elithwaxabene nolawulo loorhulumente. Le nkqubo ixhomekeke ekulweni namabhongo, njengoko uJames Madison ebhalile ku-[FLT: 0] Federalist No.[5: "Ukuba abantu bebengalulo gunya likarhulumente, bekungayi kuba yimfuneko. Ukuba iingelosi bezilawula abantu, okanye ukulawula kwangaphandle kukarhulumente bekungayi kuba yimfuneko."

Ingcamango Yokukhangela Nokulungelelana

Ingcamango ekudala iqalisa ukusekwa kweMelika. Isithandi sobulumko saseFrentshi uMontesquieu, uMoya woMthetho [1748], walwela ukwahlula umthetho, umphathi, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba ukugcina inkululeko. Abaseki bafunda umsebenzi wakhe baza bazama umgaqo-siseko phambi kokuba kwenziwe umgaqo-siseko. KwiConvention yezomGaqo-siseko ka1787, abameli baphikisana kakhulu mayelana namandla amasebe ngamanye amasebe afanele abe nawo. Isiphumo sasiyinkqubo engafezekanga efuna intsebenziswano kunye nengqungquthela.

Iingqiniba kunye nolwahlulo zahlukile kulawulo lwamandla , nangona le ngqiqo isebenza kunye. Ukwahlulwa kwamandla kwahlula urhulumente ibe ngamasebe amathathu anemisebenzi engundoqo eyahlukileyo. Iingqikelelo kunye nezilinganiselo zinika isebe ngalinye amandla okuthintela okanye impembelelo yabanye. Umzekelo, uMongameli ungenza umthetho, kodwa iBhunga lingawuphazamisa loo nto ngevoti ephindwe kabini. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ingavakalisa isebe elingawusebenzisiyo umthetho, kodwa kumongo wokoqobo. La magunya angenakwenza nto lisebenza ngokungenamsebenzi kumntu omnye kwimicimbi ebalulekileyo.

Imigaqo emithathu engundoqo isiseko senkqubo:

  • ukungabinatyala: Isebe ngalinye kufuneka liphendule kwezinye kwaye, ngazo, kubantu.
    • [[FLT:]
  • [FLT]] Intembelo:[[[FLT:]] [[FLT]] Imilinganiselo emininzi] ifuna ulalanisa nokucotha.[FLT:[FLT:][12]] [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT:]

    UmGaqo-siseko ngokwawo ujongwa ngokugqibeleleyo: ngokubhaliweyo kwawo nangenkqubo yokulungisa, efuna iinkalo ezinkulu kwiBhunga nakumazwe. IBhili yamaLungelo iyaqhubeka ibeka imiqathango yegunya likarhulumente, kwaye iinkundla zichaza loo miqathango. Kubemi, bayaqonda ukuba umGaqo-siseko yinkqubo ephilayo efuna ukulungelelanisa okuqhubekayo okuncedayo kucacisa isizathu sokuba iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni kunye nemfazwe yezobupolitika ziqhelekile, hayi imiqondiso yokusilela kwenkqubo.

    Indlela Osebenza Ngayo Umsebenzi Wokujonga Nokuzimela

    Isebe Elisemthethweni: Ukwenza Imithetho Phantsi Kwamehlo Athe Tye

    Ingqungquthela idala imithetho, kodwa ayinakwenza oku yodwa. UMongameli kufuneka atyikitye isibhengezo sokuba ibe ngumthetho; ukuba uMongameli uvetoes, iBhunga lifuna uninzi oluzii-3 ezintathu kumagumbi omabini ukuthotywa. Lo mqobo uthetha ukuba umongameli umele angabi nanto ingakakhululeki---------akanye kwishumi elinamashumi amabini. Noko ke, isisongelo seveto singoyikisa iBhunga ukuba imigaqo elungeleleneyo okanye ungquzulwano.

    IKhomishini ilawula uqingqo-mali. Amandla esingxowa semali luvavanyo olunamandla kumphathi-makhareji: akukho mali inokuchithwa ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa kwemvume ephuma kwiKhomishini. Olu vavanyo lwalusembindini wokuvalwa kwemali karhulumente ka-2013 kunye neemali ezininzi zokuchitha iimali. Ngaphezu koko, iNdlu yamagunya iqinisekisa ukubekwa komongameli (abaphathi be-cathenet, abagwebi bolawulo, iijaji ze-arhente) kwaye kufuneka zifake izivumelwano zokuxhasa izivumelwano ngevoti ezimbini-3. Ukuqinisekisa ukuva kunye neevoti ezininzi zomgangatho zivavanywa ulawulo lolawulo lwasekuhlaleni.

    Olunye uhlolo olubalulekileyo lwemithetho-mthetho luyi ulawulo. IiKomiti zibamba ukuva, ukukhupha ityala, nokuhlola izenzo zesebe eliphetheyo. Amandla okunyanzela ubungqina namaxwebhu avumela iBhunga ukuba lityhile inkunkuma, ubuqhetseba, kunye nokuxhaphaza. Umzekelo, ukuchongwa kweWatergate, ekugqibeleni kwakhokelela kuMongameli Nixon's. Kutshanje, uphengululo lwengqungquthela kunyaka wesi-6, 2021, kunye nolawulo lweTrump luye lwabalase imida yamandla olawulo oluphezulu.

    Isebe elinolawulo oluphezulu: Ukuphumeza imithetho kunye nezithintelo

    UMongameli unyanzelisa umthetho karhulumente, uyalela umkhosi, kunye nehambo yenkqubo yamanye amazwe. Kodwa onke loo magunya akhangelwa. UMongameli ucebisa ukuba kwenziwe uqingqo-mali, kodwa uKhomishini uyalwamkela. UMongameli uqulu-mthetho uququzelela izivumelwano, kodwa uMongameli umele avume. UMongameli angayalela ukuba kwenziwe umkhosi, kodwa kuphela iBhunga kuphela elinokwazisa imfazwe `a' eliye lavavanywa ngokuphindaphindiweyo emva kwexesha le-9/11. Isigqibo semfazwe soMpali sika-1973 sifuna ukuba uMongameli wazisa iBhunga ngeyure ezingama-48 zemikhosi nemidabi yemidanga yemiqathango egunyazo ezingamashumi ama-60 ngaphandle kogunya.

    UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo. Kodwa ukutyunjwa ngakunye kufuneka kuphumelele uqinisekiso lweNdlu yeeNtlanga. Oku kuhlola kuye kwaba lucalucalulo oluphezulu: kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, abanye abalawuli baye bajongana nohlolo olunzulu kunye nokoyiswa. Ukungavumi kuka-2016 ukuba kuthethwe ngetyala likaMerrick Garland (uMphathi-Oma's nonomee) kunye nokuqinisekiswa ngokukhawuleza kuka-Amy Coney Barrett ngo-2020 kubonisa indlela iBharn enokuba yiyo igosasidia ekwayo ka-Justidia ka-20.

    UMongameli angakhupha imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo ukukhokela amaqumrhu karhulumente, kodwa le miyalelo ingacelw'ucelo kwinkundla okanye iphendulwe ngumlandeli. Zikwangenako ukwenza imithetho emitsha okanye imali efanelekileyo. Izenzo zolawulo ziphantsi kohlolo logwebo, kwaye ukufikelela imiyalelo kubethelelwe phantsi ngomzekelo, imigudu kaMongameli Truman yokuthabatha izigalo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea (Ulutsha olunephepha le-Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 1952).

    Umongameli onguMongameli ophethe iKhabhinethi nabo basebenza njengee-checks zecangca, nangona besebenza kulonwabo loMongameli. IsiHlanzekiso se-25 sinika inkqubo yokususa uMongameli ongakwaziyo ukuphumeza imisebenzi, efuna uninzi lweKhabhinethi okanye uthumo olukhethekileyo.

    Isebe Lejaji: Ukutolika Imithetho Ngokuzimeleyo

    Abagwebi bomanyano basebenza kuhlolo lobomi bonke emva kokutyunjwa nguMongameli kunye nokuqinisekiswa yiBhunga. Bakhuselwe kwingcinezelo ebanzi, babavumela ukuba balawule ngokusekelwe kumthetho nomGaqo-siseko naxa bengathandwa. Uvavanyo lwabo oluphambili luyi uphengululo lwezobujaji .] . . Amandla okuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingagunyaziso. La mandla asekwa ku Marbury v.[FLT] [183]

    Ngohlolo lwezomthetho, iinkundla zingazenza zibe namsebenzi izenzo zeBhunga (umz., zibethelela phantsi iinxalenye zoMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-siseko ngo-2013) okanye zithintele imiyalelo yabalawuli (umz., ukuvalwa komsebenzi wokuhamba ngo-2017). Igama leNkundla ePhakamileyo ligqibele ngemibuzo yomgaqo-siseko, ngaphandle kokuba umGaqo-siseko ulungisiwe. Kodwa iNkundla ayinakunyanzelisa imithetho yayo; ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuwathwala. UMongameli akavumi ukunyanzelela ukunyanzelisa umgaqo-siseko wenkundla, kodwa oko kuyinto enqabileyo kwaye ihlala ihleli kafutshane.

    Iinkundla ezisezantsi ziyayiqinisekisa. Ziyalela ukuba kungaphunyelelwa izenzo zorhulumente ezingekho mthethweni, yaye izigqibo zazo zinokubhenwa. Inkqubo ye-apellate ngokwayo inguvavanyo: akukho mgwebi unye onokumisela inkqubo yelizwe lonke ngaphandle kokuhlolisiswa. Iinkundla zikwanamandla okuchaza isigwebo, ngokufuthi zigcwalisa imiqathango okanye imimiselo. Elo gunya lijongwa yiBhunga elinokuthi liphelise imithetho yokuphelisa ukuchazwa kwemithetho (xa umGaqo-siseko uyavuma).

    Amatyala eejaji ngomnye ummandla wolungelelwano lolwaphulo-mthetho olulungelelanisayo lolwaphulo-mthetho. UMongameli nabatshutshisi bamatyala bamagunya kufuneka bagqibe ukuba ngubani oza kutyhola oyena mntu, kodwa amatyala agwebe ngetyala. ABagwebi bamisela izigwebo, kodwa izigwebo ezinyanzelekileyo nezigwebo zibeke imilinganiselo yengqiqo. Amandla okuxolela, aphantse apheleliselwe kwityala likarhulumente, akwahlala noMongameli .

    Isizathu Sokuba Oku Kubaluleke Kumntu Wonke

    Ukuqonda ii-checks nolungelelwano asiyonkqubo yemfundo. Kunika abemi izixhobo zokuvavanya izenzo zezopolitiko: Ngaba iBhunga liwenza umsebenzi walo wobuveleli? Ingaba uMongameli ugqitha igunya lomgaqo-siseko? Ingaba ijaji ihlala izimele? Ngaphandle kolu lwazi, abavoti bangaphenjelelwa zizityholo zokuba umongameli "unamandla angenamda" okanye ukuba umthetho wenkundla ngu "oyena Mphathi-siseko" ngaphandle kwesiseko.

    Iingqikelelo nolungelelwano lukwaxhomekeke ekuthabatheni inxaxheba kwezentlalo. Ukuvavanywa konyulo kubaluleke kakhulu: ukuba abemi abavumi bayakonwa yimisebenzi yeBhunga, bangavota. Kodwa unyulo lusebenza kuphela xa abantu bevota, bexelelwa, kwaye benokungenisa ulwazi olunokuthenjwa. Unyamezelo lweVoter, igerrymaning, kunye nenkohliso zisongela uvavanyo lonyulo.

    Abahlali bayakwazi ukunxibelelana ngqo nabameli, benikela ubungqina ekuchotshelweni, benenxaxheba ekugqabazeni ngomthetho, kunye nemibutho exhasayo elungele amalungelo omGaqo-siseko. Le nkqubo yenzelwe ukuba ikwazi ukuphembelela ukuphembelela abantu abathembisileyo. Xa abemi behlola urhulumente wabo, bagqiba isangqa.

    Enye inzuzo esebenzisekayo: ukwamkela iingqikelelo nolungelelwano kunceda abemi balapho baqonde iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni ezibetha ityala. Xa ijaji ivala umyalelo olawulayo, okungekhona ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho elawulayo, okuthetha ukuba uvavanyo olucetywa ngabaseki. Xa iBhunga lihlola igosa leNdlu emhlophe, oko kungelilo lokuzingela. Le nkqubo isebenza ngokukhuthuza, kwaye ibangela ingquzukisana. Inginenenenene yezakhono eziqonda ukuba azinamdlali ekuphumeleni imiyalelo.

    Ngokubhekele phaya, uhlolo nolwahlulo lukhusela amalungelo amancinane. Ijudiary, ngokukodwa, ingakhusela amaqela angathandwayo kumaqhawe aphambili. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kumtshato osisigulo esifanayo (] Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015) namalungelo abantu ([ Brown v. Board yemfundo , 1954]) zazivavanywa kwimithetho emiselwe ukuba uninzi luxhaswe yiyo. Ngaphandle kokugweba okuziwe.

    Imizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene yeepeksi kunye nolungelelwano olusebenzayo

    Ngaphandle kwemizekelo ebalaseleyo, nantsi eminye yemizekelo yanamhlanje ebonisa indlela esebenza ngayo:

    • IVto kwaye ingananzi: uMongameli Trump warhoqo uMthetho woKhuselo lweNational Ilective kwi 2020 yelungiselelo elifuna ukubiza igama lesiseko esinegama eligqithisiweyo. Ingqungquthela igqitha kwiveto/indawo yokuqala enjalo ededede kwigama lakhe.
    • [[NKQUBO:0] IziBhunga zobuJudicial kunye noQinisekiso lweNdlu yeQelo: Xa uMongameli u-Obama walawula uMarick Garland kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo-2016, iNdlu yeRiphabliki yoLawulo yalile ukubamba ukuvalwa kwetyala, ngokunempumelelo ukuvala ukutyunjwa phantse unyaka wonke. Isihlalo soMphathi Scalia sahlala singenamntu de uMongameli uTrump's Trump Gorfort waqinisekiswa ngo-2017. Oku kusetyenziswa (okanye ukusetyenziswa kakubi) kwamandla ocebisi-ocebisi beNkuhlela nokuthunye ukutshintsha kwesivumelwano seNkundla.
    • Ukulawula Ukuvakala okucutheneyo: Ngonyaka wama2022, iNdlu kaJanuwari 6 yabamba iindlebe ezinyuswe ngetelefoni ezinika ubungqina bokulungelelaniswa konyulo lomongameli 2020. Isebe elingaphantsi kwe-popuans nobungqina bukawonke-wonke lanyanzelisa isebe eliphetheyo ukuba livelise amaxwebhu namangqina, kuquka neyangaphambili iinkonzo zendlu ezimhlophe.
    • Impinda yeQumrhu loLawulo oluPhezulu: Ngo-2017, umyalelo womphathiswa we-Trump wokwahlula uhambo kumazwe amaninzi amaSilamsi wacelw ’ umngeni. INkundla yeNyeni yeNtlanganiso yezibheno yaphakamisa ukugcinwa komthetho, yaye ekugqibeleni iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumela uguqulelo oluhlaziyiweyo. Inkundla yahlola amandla kaMongameli okumisela ukufuduka okusuka kunqulo.
    • Uhlolo lwezopolitiko njengekhankasi le-'Projekthi''. uMongameli uTrump watyunjwa kabini yiNdlu (ekunye ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla kunye nokuthintelwa kweBhunga (209) kwaye kanye ngenxa yokuphembelela ukuvuselelwa (2021). IBhunga leNtlanga yamkhulula ngamaxesha omabini, kuba umqobo wesithathu wokungadityaniswa. I-I-mentshisi sisixhobo esishwankantsi, kodwa linyanzelela ingxoxo kawonke-wonke kunye nokuphendula.

    Le mizekelo ibonisa ukuba uhlolo nomlinganiselo azingonto. Zidlala ngexesha lokwenene, maxa wambi ngezibonda eziphezulu. Zikwabonisa ukuba inkqubo yomelele kuphela njengabantu abayisebenzisayo, kwaye nabemi ababukeleyo.

    Iingxaki Neengxaki Zale nkqubo

    Akukho nkqubo igqibeleleyo. Iingqikelelo kunye nolungelelwano lungakhokelela kwiqhina elitsha xa amasebe elawulwa ngamaqela ahlukeneyo. Ukuvalwa korhulumente, ukulibaziseka, nokungaqiniseki komthetho ziimpawu zemiqondiso. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo iye yaba lukhuni kakhulu, ithintela inyathelo eliyimfuneko kwimiba efana nokutshintsha kwemozulu okanye utshintsho. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi uMongameli, ingakumbi kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe, uqokelele amandla amaninzi kakhulu ngemiqathango enganele.

    Ukwahlukana kungenza uphazamiso lungasebenzi: xa iBhunga neNdlu emhlophe zibophelelekile, uphando lungacutha, kwaye iivetos zisenokuba zinqabile. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, xa zingengawomaqela ahlukeneyo, ulawulo lunokuba sisixhobo sezobupolitika kunokuba lube kukuhlola okunyanisekileyo. Ukulungelelanisa phakathi kokuziphendulela nokusebenzisana kusenokuba yinto enzima.

    Ukuvela kwemiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo kunye nezenzo zolawulo oluphezulu kukwatshintshwa amandla kumongameli. Oomongameli bobabini baye basebenzisa imiyalelo engajongwanga ukuba baphume kwiBhunga eliqeshiweyo. Ngoxa iinkundla zinokuqhatha, izenzo ezininzi zolawulo zinokusinda kuba ziphantsi komthetho okhoyo. Abahlali kufuneka baqonde ukuba intsingiselo engokomGaqo-siseko yokwenza umthetho ngezenzo zobundlobongela nokuzimisela akusoloko kuyinto yokwenene.

    Olunye uxinezeleko lukukwenziwa kokumiselwa kwekomiti. Amadabi engqinisekisi athe anda, kwaye abanye abagwebi bamiselwa belindele ukuba baza kuvota ngokwamaqela eengcamango anokuthelekelelwa. Oku kunokusongela ingqiqo yokuzimela ngokweziqu zomthetho. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa ngokwayo kukuhlola, kodwa xa isetyenziselwa ukuvala ii-minenee ngokusekelwe kwingcamango kuphela, isenokuphelisa ukuthembana kwabantu.

    Ngaphandle kwale mingeni, isakhiwo siye sanyamezela iminyaka engaphezu kwama- 230. Abaseki balindele ukungquzulwano kwaye bayila inkqubo eyakufuna ukuxoxisana okuqhubekayo. Njengoko uMgwebi uLouis Brandeis waphawula, "Imfundiso yokwahlukana kwamagunya yamkelwa yiNdibano yowe-1787, kungekhona ukukhuthaza impumelelo kodwa ukuthintela ukusebenzisa amandla azimeleyo." Ingingqi ezihlala zicinga ngaloo njongo zixhotyiswe bhetele ukugweba enoba inkqubo isebenza ngendlela ecetyisiweyo.

    Isiphumo: Indima Yakho Ekulinganiseni

    Iingqikelelo nolungelelwano asingomdlalo wababukeli. Zifuna ukuba abemi bafumane ulwazi, bathembise ukusebenza kakuhle. Ukuqinisekisa okuthe ngqo . "lonke unyulo lunika ithuba lokubuyisela abamisi-mthetho, okanye uMongameli, okanye abaququzeleli abaqinisekisa iijaji. Kodwa ukuvota kukodwa akwanele. Abahlali kufuneka nabo bagcine abameli babo benoxanduva phakathi konyulo, balandele inkqubela engokwasemthethweni neyopolitiki, kwaye baxhase amaziko afana nomatshini okhululekileyo kunye nomatshini wokushicilela ozimele wejaji-8.

    Uvavanyo lwenkqubo esemthethweni lukhuselwe kwinkululeko, kodwa aluzinqumli. Zixhomekeke ekuthembekeni nasekuthembekeni koluntu. Xa abemi beqonda indlela amasebe asebenza ngayo, bangaqonda xa inkqubo ibhukuqwa kwaye ifunwa ukulungiswa. Ukwazi le migaqo kukhuthaza umonde: urhulumente uhamba kancinci ngenjongo, kwaye ukuba ukhawulezise luphawu, ingeyiyo isiphene.

    Ukufunda okungakumbi ngemvelaphi yentanda-bulumko kunye neengxoxo eziqhubekayo, abafundi bangahlola uBaseki boovimba besizwe ku-Online kumaxwebhu omthombo osisiseko. ICultitution Anetic[ inika uhlalutyo oluneenkcukacha lwamandla esebe ngalinye. Kwingxoxo zale mihla, iprojekthi [[FLT:]]OYEZ project [] inika izishwankathelo ezifikelelekayo zamatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo ezichazi iingqikelelo neemba ezithe krafifi.

    Ekugqibeleni, uhlolo nomlinganiselo ungumsebenzi wesizwe njengesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko. Wonke ummi ubophelelekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuba akukho sebe(/namnye inkokeli) unamandla kakhulu. Ngokuqonda nangokuthabatha inxaxheba, uphakamisa ulungelelwano olukhusela inkululeko yethu.