Impembelelo Engathethiyo YeNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ayiyidlulisi imithetho okanye ayiyinyanzelisi. Kodwa izigqibo zayo zifikelela kwiigumbi zamagumbi okufundela, kumagumbi ezibhedlele, namagumbi okuvota, nakwiindawo zokuhlala kulo lonke elo lizwe. Izigqibo zophawu lweNkundla zibumba imida yenkululeko yobuqu, zichaze amagunya karhulumente, kwaye zikhusele amalungelo abantu ngokuchasene noninzi. Ukuqonda la matyala akuyo into engomthetho enzima, kodwa yindlela yokubona indlela imigaqo ecacileyo ecacileyo eguqulela ngayo kwiimeko zobomi bemihla ngemihla.

Isiseko: Impinda Yomthetho Nomthetho

Ubuchule beNkundla ukubetha imithetho njengengekho mgaqo-siseko buyimveliso yetyala lephawu: Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Kweso sigqibo, uMphathi-Sikhulu John Marshall wamisela umgaqo wokuhlola, enika iNkundla Ephakamileyo igama lokugqibela ngoko kuthethwa nguMgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lisekelwe kuyo yonke imeko elandelayo echaphazela ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Ngaphandle kwalo, iNkube iNkungabanga nako ukukhulula izikolo ezimiselwe ngokwezikolo, ukukhusela amalungelo okuvota, okanye ukugxamplanisa okuphatha okuphezulu.

Kummi oqhelekileyo, uhlolo lwetyala luthetha ukuba akukho mthetho, kodwa nokuba ungakanani na owaphula umGaqo-siseko. Kungenxa yokuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuyivala incwadi ngenxa yokuba ayivumelani neengcamango ezingaphakathi, okanye isizathu sokuba umongameli avumelane nethopona. Imeko ngokwayo isenokuba ineminyaka eliwaka elinamashumi amabini enkulungwane ubudala, kodwa ihlala iyinjini esemva komthetho wonke obalulekileyo olandelayo.

Izikolo nomgangatho: Brown v.

Mhlawumbi akukho sigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo esiye saba nempembelelo ecacileyo nebonakalayo kubomi bemihla ngemihla kune Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954). INkundla ngamxhelo mnye yavakalisa ukuba ukucalucalulana kweentlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke kwakungalingani ngokwemvelo, ibhukuqa imfundiso “yokukhetha kodwa elinganayo” ye- Pnect. Ferguson [1896]]

Phambi kweBrown, izigidi zabantwana abantsundu zanyanzeleka ukuba ziye kwizikolo eziphantsi, ezizikhetheleyo. Isigqibo sarhoxa isakhiwo esisemthethweni sikaJim Crow saza savula umnyango kumbutho wamalungelo abantu. Ngoxa imfundo epheleleyo isengumsebenzi oqhubekayo, uBrown utshintsha umhlaba: namhlanje, abantwana bazo zonke iindidi bafunda ngokusemthethweni kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke. Ityala laqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko awukhuseli nje ukulingana okusesikweni kodwa ukhusela iziphumo zokwenene zocalucalulo, umgaqo onwebela kwizindlu, umsebenzi, nendawo yokuhlala kawonke.

Impembelelo yemihla ngemihla ayinakulinganiswa. Ngaso sonke ixesha umfundi ehleli kwigumbi lokufundela elidityaniswe nobuhlanga, bafumana ilifa likaBrown. Le meko ikwavule indlela yeminye imithetho elwa nokruthakruthwano, kuquka u-Koval v. Virginia [1967], eyatshabalalisa imithetho enqabela umtshato wobuhlanga. Ngothando yayenza ukuba ibhalwe ngokusemthethweni izibini zemilo yezizwe ezahlukeneyo ukuba zitshate kwilizwe ngalinye, ibandakanya kungekuphela kwezibini zazo kodwa nabantwana bazo, iintsapho zabo, kunye nabantu abahlala apho zihlala khona.

Ukungabikho Kwam kunye Nokuzimela: Ukusuka EGriswold Ukuya ERoe Ukuya ELawrence

UMgaqo-siseko awulikhankanyi ngokuphandle ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa. Kodwa iNkundla Ephakamileyo ifumanise ukuba “kukufutshane" kunye no-"iMithetho" yeBhili yamaLungelo. Lo mgca wamatyala waqala nge Griswold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [1965], eyabulala umthetho oweyisa isibini esitshatileyo ekusebenziseni uthintelo lokuthintela ukuthintela. Ummiselo wakhusela ezona zigqibo zisondelele abantu bangenza kwimpikiswano karhulumente.

. Kwanasemva kokuba iNkundla ibhukuqe uRoe [1973]) yandisa eso sigqibo sokuba ibhinqa liphumele kwisigqibo sokuqhomfa. Phantse iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu, uRoe wayengumthetho welizwe, eqinisekisa ilungelo lokukhetha umGaqo-siseko. Kwanasemva kokuba iNkundla inikezele i-Roe [[FLT]] I-Dobsss. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022], iimfazwe ezingokwasemthethweni ezilandelela iziphumo ezithi zigxininisa indlela ezichaphazele ngayo amathuba empilo yemihla ngemihla, ukucwangcwa kwezoqoqosho, nokurhoxakeka kwamabhinqa. Ukurhoxiswa kweRoselk'incoa ngoku kuxhomekeke kumgangatho wobomi bakhe apho ahlala khona.

Elithayo v. Texas [2003] yawisa imithetho eyathi yakwenza ulwalamano olufanayo lobufanasini. Phambi kukaLawrence, amafanasini kunye noobhitakazi banokubanjwa ngenxa nje yokubandakanyeka kwiintlobano zesini ezingokwabo. Ityala lokungalawuleki kwabucala, ulwalamano lwabantu abadala kunye nokubeka isiseko sobulingana kuwe . Hodges v. (2020). Izigidi zeLGBQ+ Americaan, Lawrence ne-Oberge kuthetha ukuba iintsapho zabo zibhaqwalalw, ulwalamano lwazo lufanelekile, kwaye uthando lwabo alukho lwaphulo-mthetho.

La matyala ayimfihlo abumba indlela abantu abaphila ngayo ubomi babo bobuqu: indlela ababumba ngayo iintsapho, benza izigqibo zezonyango, baze bavakalise ubunyaniso babo. isigwebo seNkundla kulo mmandla siyaqhubeka siguquka, kodwa umgaqo ohlala ukho wokuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukupolitisa igumbi lokulala ngaphandle kwesizathu esinyanzelisayo.

Intetho Ekhululekileyo Nentetho Yezobupolitika

INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yazichaza ngokuphandle ezi ntaba xa zivela kwiimeko eziphawulekayo ezichaphazela indlela ezithethwa ngayo mihla le.

.Indawo yeSithili seSikolo soLuntu saseVietnam . Des Moines Independent [1969]) yathi abafundi “abawasebenzisi amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko kwinkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lendlu yesikolo." Ityala libandakanya abafundi ababenxibe iintambo ezimnyama ukuze baqhathe imfazwe yaseVietnam. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba izikolo zinokusohlwaya intetho ebangela ukuphazamiseka okukhulu. Abafundi bonke abanxiba isikhonkwane sezobupolitika, babhala inqaku elinempikiswano kwiphephandaba lesikolo, okanye bacwangcise inzuzo yokuhamba ukusuka kwi-Tiker. Ikhusela amazwi abantu abaselula kwizikolo zikawonke wonke, ukulungisa imeko yezoshishino.

ISiphakamiso seKhomishini yoNqumlo yeManyano [[Federal EFLT:1] (2010) yathetha ngokukhululekileyo kwicala elahlukileyo. INkundla yathi amaqumrhu namaqumrhu anamalungelo afanayo okuHlaziywa koQala koMphetho-Mxholo-mda njengabantu abasebenzisa imali engenasiphelo kwizibhengezo ezizimeleyo zobupolitika. Abahlalutyisi baphikisa ukuba esi sigqibo sivule amajelo okulawula izilangazelelo zobutyebi. Abaxhasi bathi sikhusela intetho yezobupolitika kwimbono yomnye, iPolity United itshintshileyithi, indlela izibhengezo zentengiso ezitshayo kunye namajelo-ndaba asekuhlaleni, nendlela abaqhelekileyo abayiqonda ngayo impembelelo yemali kwizobupolitika.

Amanye amatyala akhululekileyo athetha ngeflegi etsha, intetho yentiyo, izibhengezo zentengiso, kunye ne-intanethi. Le Nkundla ibisoloko ikhusela kwanentetho engathandwayo (*."Xa nje ingaluxhokonxeli ugonyamelo okanye ingaluthinti.) Oku kuthetha ukuba, kubomi bemihla ngemihla, abantu banokugxeka urhulumente, bavukele imigaqo-nkqubo yokuqhatha, yaye bavakalise iimbono ezingathandwayo ngaphandle kokoyika ukumangalelwa, inkululeko enqabileyo kwiindawo ezininzi zehlabathi.

Ukunika Abanye Umalungelo Nokuthabatha Inxaxheba

Ilungelo lokuvota lisisiseko kwidemokhrasi, kwaye iNkundla Ephakamileyo ikhuphe izigqibo eziphawula ingqalelo engonokuvota nendlela eqhutywa ngayo unyulo.

Selby County v. Hoker (2013) yagatya ilungiselelo elingundoqo loMthetho wamaLungelo ka1965 ofuna amazwe athile nembali yocalulo ukuze afumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. Ulawulo lwakhulula loo mazwe ukuba amisele imithetho emitsha ye-ID yomvoti, ukucola indawo yokuvala, kunye nezicwangciso zokuhlaziya. Kuwo onke la mazwe, isigqibo siye sathetha imigca emide, imimandla ecuthe , kwaye, kwezinye iimeko, imiqobo emikhulu yokufaka ibhola. Imeko ichaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ukuphucuka okanye ubunzima bokuvota, nto leyo ingumsebenzi wemihla ngemihla kunyaka ngexesha lonyulo.

Reynolds v. Sims (1964) waseka umgaqo ‘ womntu omnye, ivoti enye,” efuna ukuba imimandla yemithetho ilingana nabemi. Ngaphambi kokuba iReynolds, imimandla yasemaphandleni yayisoloko inamandla angalinganiyo anxulumene nemimandla yasedolophini. Umthetho waqinisekisa ukuba ivoti yommi ngamnye iphathe ubunzima obulinganayo, obuchaphazela indlela abameli abakhethwa ngayo kwaye abafumana ngayo ingqalelo kwiindlu zolawulo zikarhulumente.

Amatyala amalungelo akwathetha ngokufikelela kwabantu abakhubazekileyo, abaneziqu ezincinane, nababethetha iilwimi ezincinane, kunye nababesakuba ngabahlali. Izigqibo zeNkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba iindawo zokuvota ziyafumaneka kusini na, nokuba iibhola zifumaneka ngeelwimi ezininzi na, nokuba abantu abaye basebenzisa izigwebo zabo bayakwazi ukuphinda bafumane idemokhrasi.

Amandla Karhulumente Nemida Yegunya

Amatyala abonisa oko urhulumente anokukwenza nangenakukwenza, ekhusela abemi ekuphangweni.

United States v. Nixon [19974]) yavela kwimposiso yamanzi. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba uMongameli Nixon kwakufuneka anike itepi erekhodiweyo enxulumene nophando, angakufuni ukubeka ityala lakhe eliphezulu. Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu, kwanomongameli, ungaphezulu komthetho. Kubemi abaqhelekileyo, lo mba uqinisa umgaqo wokuba amagosa karhulumente amele aphendule ngezenzo zabo.

Miranda v. Arizona (66]) kufuneka amapolisa azise nabani na orhanelwayo ngamalungelo awo okuhlala ethe cwaka nokuba negqwetha phambi kokubuzwa. Isilumkiso esiqhelekileyo esiqhelekileyo ngoku siyinxalenye eqhelekileyo yokubanjwa. Ityala likhusela abantu abaqhelekileyo ekunyanzelweni ukuba banyanzeleke ukuba bangabi nabudlelane. Lichaphazela nabani na othathwa kwibanjwa lamapolisa, aqinisekise ukuba ayawaqonda amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko.

Gideon v. Wainwright (63) waqinisekisa ilungelo lokunika abamangalelwa abagwebi abangakwaziyo ukufikelela igqwetha. Phambi kukaGidiyon, umntu olihlwempu angajamelana nokuvavanywa ngaphandle kokumelo. Isigqibo sadala inkqubo yokhuselo lukawonke-wonke. Ukufumana abantu abaphantsi abamangalelwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho, uGidiyon uthetha ukuba banokuba bakwithuba lokulwa enkundleni.

Imeko ezifana . .O. (1961) kunye Terry v.Ohio) ilawula ukuphengulula nokuxhuzula kunye nokumisa imiqathango yomthetho. Le mimiselo ichaphazela ukudibana nokunyanzelwa komthetho yonke imihla: oko amapolisa afuna ukuphendla isithuthi, indlela angammisa ngayo umntu othile esitratweni, kwaye ubungqina obukhoyo enkundleni. Umlinganiselo phakathi kokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke kunye nelungelo lobuqu uvavanywa rhoqo, kwaye imiqathango yeNkundla icwangcisa imida.

Umhlaba, Urhwebo Nobomi Bezoqoqosho

Inkundla ePhakamileyo ikwaphembelela izinto zezoqoqosho. Kelo v. IsiXeko saseNew London (2005]) (ivumele urhulumente ukuba athabathe impahla yezorhwebo kwinkqubela phambili yezoqoqosho phantsi kolawulo oluphezulu. Isigqibo savusa ukungqubana kwaye sakhokelela kumazwe amaninzi kwimithetho eqinileyo ekhusela abanini-mpahla. Abanini-makhaya kunye namashishini, uKelo waphakamisa amaqhina endlela abanokusebenzisa ngayo ugwebo.

IFoderal Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202) waxhasa umyalelo womntu ngamnye woMthetho wokuLawulwa kweNtolongo eMandla njengerhafu, ukulondoloza utshintsho lwe-inshorensi yempilo. Esi sigqibo savumela izigidi zabantu baseMelika ukuba zifumane intengiso, nto leyo echaphazela ukufikelela kwazo kwinkathalo yezonyango kunye nokhuseleko lwemali. INkundla yeNkundla ibekelwe umda wamandla kaChwephelo-Centu Classiaste, iphawula ukuba asingomsebenzi wezoqoqosho olawulwa ngurhulumente.

Amanye amatyala entengiselwano abumba imithetho yemekobume, imithetho yezengqesho, kunye nezoshishino zezoshishino.

Intsapho, Umtshato Nobume Bakho

Ngaphaya komtshato, iNkundla ithethe ngamalungelo abazali, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nomthetho womkhaya. Santosky v. Kramer (19982) (i-1982) yakholelwa ukuba urhulumente kufuneka alingqine ityala lakhe “ngobungqina obucacileyo nobuyiselayo” phambi kokuphelisa amalungelo abazali. Lo mgangatho ukhusela iintsapho ekususweni okungekho bulungisa kwabantwana. Troxel v. Granville[FLT[2:3]] wagqiba kwelokuba umzali ofanelekileyo ngokutyeleleka kutyelelo lukatawomkhulu unelungelo lokugcina amalungelo omzali, ukuqinisekisa igunya labazali.

Le migaqo ichaphazela eyona nkalo isondeleyo yobomi bentsapho, igqiba ngokuba ngubani onokufumana ilungelo lokugcina umntwana, nendlela urhulumente angenelela ngayo kwimicimbi yentsapho.

Isiphumo Sombethe Sokuqala

Ityala ngalinye eliphawula iziganeko zeziganeko lisenza okungaphezulu kokusombulula impikiswano enye. Limisela umzekelo okhokela iinkundla zexesha elizayo, abamisi-mthetho, kunye nabemi. Brown[ ayizange isuse nje izikolo; yanikela isiseko esisemthethweni soMthetho wamalungelo abantu oMgaqo-siseko we-Ovinial Rights ka-1964 kunye noMthetho we-Voting Rights ka-1965. Roe[ ayizange ikhusele ukuqhomfa; iqinisekisa ilungelo elibanzi lokufihla imfihlo eqhubeka liphembelela amatyala okuthintela ukuthintela, impatho yesondo, kunye nogcino-lwazi lwezonyango.

Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ilawula umzekelo, njengoko yenzayo ku Dobts okanye Brown[ ingaphezulu kakhulu [[[FLT:]] Plut] Plureser [, utshintsho luyinyikima. Ithumela uqhwithela kwiinkqubo zomthetho nebutho. Yonke imihla utshintsho lobomi: imithetho emitsha ithatha isiphumo, ukhuseleko oludala, kwaye abantu kufuneka baqhubeke. Ukuqonda ezi meko kunceda abemi balindele kwaye baphendule kumalungelo abo.

Indlela Abahlali Abanokuba Nayo

Ukwazi ngemeko zencopho yophawu kunika abantu amandla okuxhasa bona nabanye. Umzali omntwana ojongene noqeqesho kulwazi lwezopolitiko angacaphula [[FLT: 0] . Uvoti ucelw'ethelwe ngumngeni yimfuno entsha yokwahlula angaqonda umongo we i-Shelby County. Umntu omiswe ngamapolisa angakhumbula [[[FLT: 4.] MMADA kunye [FLT:] [FLT]]

Ufundo lwezimvo zokwenene ````ezifumaneka emanxuwani'' njenge projekthi okanye Inceda ukukhangela indlela amatyala amatsha anokubuyisela ngayo ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Imibutho yemfundo ekwi-CUB efana noMgaqo-siseko wezwe [[FLT:]]

Ekugqibeleni, iNkundla Ephakamileyo asiyondawo ekude. Izigqibo zayo zidityaniswe kwizinto zobomi bemihla ngemihla baseMerika. Enoba isegumbini lokufundela, kwisitishi sokuvota, esibhedlele, okanye ngokuthetha nje ingqondo kabani, umGaqo-siseko uphilile, kwaye ingcaciso yeNkundla ngawo ibumba elibumba amalungelo esisoloko siwathatha lula. Ukuqonda amatyala enkcazo yendalo akuyo eyamagqwetha kuphela, yiyo yonke imimimizana efuna ukwazi isizathu sokuba inkululeko yayo yemihla ngemihla ikho.