IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, esamkelwa ngoJulayi 9, 1868, simi njengenye yeziphendu ezilandelayo kwimbali yaseMelika, ithetha ngamalungelo obumi kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente. Oku kuguqula kwaba yimpendulo engqalileyo kwimiba echaphazela amakhoboka akhululiweyo emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya aseMerika, kwaye ukumiswa kwawo kwakhuphisana ngokukrakrakra. Ukuqonda uGaqo- Amelikathiso lweshumi elinesine kubalulekile kumntu ngamnye onoxanduva unqwenela ukuqonda amalungelo angundoqo kunye nokhuseleko oluqinisekiswe ngumGaqo-siseko. Olu khokelo olubanzi lwaluzigocagocagociso lwezi ezizi zizinto ezingundoqo, umbandela ongokwembali, iizicelo zengxelo, kunye noncedo lwawombutho oqhubekayo kwibutho lanamhlanje laseMelika.

Imbali Nentsingiselo

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwavela ngexesha lovuselelwa kwakhona njengempendulo kwiimbambano ezichaphazela amakhoboka akhululiweyo emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya yaseMelika, kunye namazwe oMbutho owoyisiweyo ofunekayo ukuwavumela ukuba aphinde afumane imelo kwiBhunga. Utshintsho lwadluliselwa yiKhonklathi ngoJuni 13, 18666, lwaza lwagunyaziswa ngoJulayi 9, 1868. Inkqubo yokuqululisa ngokwayo yabonakalisa izahlulo ezinzulu phakathi kohlanga, njengoko amaphondo aseMazantsi ekuqaleni ayewachasa amalungiselelo okulungisa.

UHlaziyo lwe-14 lwandisa inkululeko namalungelo anikwe yiBhili yamaLungelo kubantu ababengamakhoboka ngaphambili. UMbutho weBhunga laseOhio, umbhali oyintloko wecandelo lokuqala loMphengululo we-14, wayenenjongo yokuba ukubuyiselwa kweBhili yamaLungelo kwamazwe ngokuyenza ibophelele kumarhulumente. Lo mphumo weli phulo uza kuluguqula ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente norhulumente kwaye ngokusisiseko uguqule uluntu lwamalungelo abantu eMelika.

Inguquko yamela ukutshintshwa okuphawulekayo komthetho-siseko. Ngaphambi kokuba kubekwe umgaqo-siseko, iBhili yamaLungelo ngokuyintloko yawathintela urhulumente wesizwe, ishiya amaphondo anenkululeko engakumbi ngendlela ababephatha ngayo abemi bawo. IsiHlanzi seshumi elinesine seSindululo sayiguqula le ngxaki ngokumisela imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko karhulumente, sidala inkqubo entsha yokukhusela amalungelo omntu nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente.

Amacandelo Amahlanu OMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Weshumi Elinane

IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesine siquka amacandelo ahlanu ahlukeneyo, ngalinye lithetha ngeenkalo ezahlukeneyo zobumi, umelo, kunye negunya likarhulumente. Ngoxa iCandelo 1 lifumana eyona ngqwalasela negalelo, ukuqonda onke amacandelo ahlanu anika umzobo opheleleyo wobungaphi bobuhlaziyo nenjongo.

ICandelo 1: Isiseko samalungelo

Icandelo Elinye liquka ubuSakhazi bobuNgamashishini uClaus, amaLungelo okanye amaGama abizwa ngokuba yi-Iscale Claus, i-Act Procession Claus, ne-Acimement Clause. Icandelo 1 kwiSindululo se- 14th Amendment ichaza ngokusemthethweni ubumi baseUnited States kwaye ikhusela amalungelo ahlukahlukeneyo oluntu ekubeni afakwe ebhukwini okanye akhatyiswe ngumthetho okanye ngurhulumente. Eli candelo libumba isiseko somgaqo-siseko apho kuye kwakhiwe khona ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu abangenakubanzi.

Ngokuyintloko ibhalwe nguMmeli John Bingham, iCandelo 1 liyinxalenye esoloko ibekwe igalelo lenguquko, kwaye le nguquko yeyona nxalenye ithe rhoqo echazwe kumGaqo-siseko. Uhlomelo lwezicatshulwa kweli candelo lubonisa impembelelo yalo enzulu kumthetho waseMelika nakwibutho labantu, ichaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zolwalamano phakathi kwabantu norhulumente.

Icandelo 2: Ukhuthuzo lwabameli

Icandelo Elibini lithetha ngokwahlulwa kwabameli kwiiNgqungquthela. Abameli baza kwahlulwa phakathi kwamaZwe aliqela ngokwamanani awo, ababale inani labantu kwiLizwe ngalinye, bangabahlawuli amaIndiya. Emva kokupheliswa kobukhoboka, oku kumelo lwandisiweyo kumazwe aseMazantsi, kwaye ijelo le ngxelo lalicetyelwe ukukhuthaza amazwe aseMazantsi ukuba aMnyama-Merika anikwe ilungelo lokuvota, kodwa iNkondla ayinqabile ukunyanzelela ukuba ivote.

Icandelo 3: Ukungavisisani okuvela e-Ofisini

Icandelo 3 lithetha ngokususwa kolwahlulo lwabantu abathile kwisikhundla sorhulumente okanye sorhulumente. Eli lungiselelo lenzelwe ngokukhethekileyo ukukhusela ababengamagosa angumNxulumani abangele ukuvukela ekubuyeleni kwisikhundla solawulo lukarhulumente. ICandelo lasebenzisa igunya lalo ukususa ulwahlulo kunye namaqumrhu amabini anesithathu kwigumbi ngalinye ngokugqithisa i-Amnesty Act, eyakhulula bonke abaLawuli ngaphandle kwangaphambili, abameli, abagwebi borhulumente, abaphathi-mikhosi, abaphathi-burhulumente, abaphathi-ofisi, kunye nee-ofisi.

Icandelo 4: Ityala likawonke-wonke

Isivumelwano sokulungiswa kwemali esalelweyo sangaphambili sokwahlula amatyala emfazwe nokuhlawula ababengamakhoboka ngenxa yokuhlaliswa kwabantu babo abangamakhoboka. Eli lungiselelo laqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akasayi kubekwa tyala ngamatyala okuhlawula amatyala, nokuba abasebenzi bamakhoboka abangayi kufumana mbuyekezo ngenxa yokulahlekelwa yimpahla yabantu.

ICandelo 5: Amandla oMbutho

IKhomishini iza kuba namandla okunyanzelisa, ngomthetho ofanelekileyo, amalungiselelo eli nqaku. Eli lungiselelo lakhokelela ekudlulisweni komnye umthetho ophawulayo kwinkulungwane yama-20, kuquka noMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo ka-Voting ka-1965. ICandelo 5 linika iBhunga igunya elibalulekileyo lokukhusela amalungelo abantu ngomthetho, nangona umgangatho walo ubuphantsi kokucaciswa okuqhubekayo kwezomthetho.

Ummi UClaus: Ukuchaza Ukuba Ngummi WaseMerika

Bonke abantu abazalwe okanye abenziwe ngendalo eUnited States, nabaphantsi kwegunya layo, ngabemi baseUnited States nabelizwe abahlala kulo. Oku kubonakala ngathi kugwetywe kwawuguqula umthetho wabemi baseMerika yaye kwabhukuqa esinye sezona zigqibo zibalaseleyo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo embalini.

Ingingqi kaClaus yasilawula isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kaGqrde Scott sokuba amaMelika aseAfrika angenakuba ngabemi. Uluntu lwafakelwa kumGaqo-siseko ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu ababengamakhoboka babegqalwa njengabemi abapheleleyo, kwaye yayiyimpendulo engqalileyo kwiDred Scott v. Sandford, apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayigqibile ukuba amaMelika amnyama akangobemi.

Ngokwenjenjalo, iBhunga labeka iDred Scott ecaleni, laza labuyisela imithetho yesithethe yobumi ngokuzalwa. Eli binzana lamisela ubumi bobuzibulo njengomgaqo osisiseko womthetho waseMerika, ukuqinisekisa ukuba ubumi abunakukhanyelwa ngenxa yobuhlanga, ubuhlanga, okanye imeko yabazali.

Ukuzalwa Kwam

Ngokusekelwe kwisigwebo sokuqala secandelo 1, iNkundla ifumanise ukuba umntwana ozalwe eUnited States kubazali bamaTshayina ababengenakuzenzela ngokwemvelo kodwa ngummi wase-United States unelungelo kuwo onke amalungelo namalungelo obumi. Lo mgaqo wamiselwa kwityala lembali eliphawula iUnited States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), eyangqina ukuba ukuba ubumi bobuzibulo busebenza kungakhathaliseki ukuba abazali banelungelo elingakanani na lokufumana ilungelo lokwemvelo.

Imfuneko yokuba umntu athobele igunya lakhe, ngoko, ayikufaki ukusetyenziswa kwabantwana abazalwa ngabameli bobuzwe basemzini, abantwana abazalwa ziintshaba zasemzini bekwilizwe elinobutshaba, okanye abantwana bezizwe zamaIndiya abalawulwa yimithetho yezizwe. Ezi zinto zicalula iimeko ezithile apho iUnited States ingasebenzisi igunya elipheleleyo kubantu abakhoyo emideni yayo.

Amalungelo Okanye Unyukelo LukaClaus

Akukho Rhulumente uza kwenza okanye unyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukukhusela abemi baseUnited States. Eli binzana lalicetyelwe ukukhusela umgangatho obanzi wamalungelo asisiseko ekungeneleni kwelizwe, kodwa umlinganiselo walo wancitshiswa ngokuphawulekayo yingcaciso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yangaphambili.

Inkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba igalelo likhusele inani elincinane kakhulu lamalungelo afumaneka ngokukhethekileyo ekubeni ngummi wesizwe. La malungelo ambalwa aquka ilungelo lokuhamba phakathi kwamazwe kunye nelungelo lokufuna ukhuseleko lukarhulumente xa uselwandle oluphezulu. Esi sigqibo sathetha ukuba amalungelo okanye iiImmunitunio Claus azinakusetyenziswa ukukhusela inkoliso yamalungelo abantu okanye ukusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, kwaye endaweni yoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo kamva isebenzise i-Unist Procesment Clausces, nto leyo ebangela ukuba inkoliso yamalungelo abantu namhlanje ajoliswe kwinkqubo efanelekileyo nekhuselwa ngendlela efanayo.

INkqubo Elindelekileyo KaClaus: Ukukhusela Ubomi, Inkululeko Nezinto

Akukho Rhulumente iya kumhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho efanelekileyo. I-Access Processol ye-144th Amendment iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho kufuneka inyanzeliswe ngokusesikweni kwaye ilandelwe iinkqubo zobulungisa. Eli lungiselelo liye laba yenye yezona zikhuseli zibalulekileyo nezikhulu kumthetho womgaqo-siseko.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iquka inkqubo yokuququzelela iprocedational nenkqubo efunekayo. Inkqubo yenkqubo yenkcazelo esisiseko iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente ulandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ngaphambi kokuncina umntu othile wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Oku kuquka ilungelo lokuqaphela, ithuba lokuva, umenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso, nezinye izinto ezisisiseko zenkqubo esesikweni.

Iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zokhuseleko ezifanelekileyo zidlulela kwiimeko ezininzi, ukusuka kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kumatyala olawulo ukuya kumatyala esikolo. Iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo ezifunekayo ziyahluka-hluka kuxhomekeka kuhlobo lomdla obekwe esichengeni nakwimeko yetyala, kodwa umgaqo ongundoqo uhlala uhleli: urhulumente kufuneka enze ngokufanelekileyo xa kuchaphazela amalungelo omntu ngamnye.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ekhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleleni kukarhulumente, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ziziphi iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo. INkundla Ephakamileyo yasebenzisa inkqubo encinci efunekayo phantsi koMthetho we-14th Amendment ukuqaphela amalungelo obuqu kwiGriswold v.Connecticut (1965), yandisa esi sicatshulwa kwi-Roe v. Wade (1973) ukukhusela amalungelo okuqhomfa, yaye eLawrence v. Texas (2003) ukuphelisa izenzo ezifanayo zesini sesondo.

KwiDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022), iNkundla yabhukuqa uRoe, ikholelwa ukuba ukuqhomfa akukhuselekanga njengenxalenye yelungelo lokuba wedwa. Umlinganiselo wamalungelo obuqu phantsi koMgqino-weshumi elinesine woLawulo lwezomthetho awukangeneki kwaye uyakubakho kwizigqibo zexesha elizayo. Le ndaleko iqhubekayo ibonisa ukuba ukuchazwa komgaqo-siseko kuyaqhubeka kuhambelana nokutshintsha kweemeko zentlalo kunye neentanda-bulumko zomthetho.

Ingxelo yamalungelo

EChicago, iBurlington & Quincy Railtray Co v. City of Chicago (1897), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa ukuthatha kweNkqutyana yokuHlaziya i-Claus kumandla olawulo lwesihlanu orhulumente obalulekileyo phantsi kwe-Thepatiso le-Claus, iqala inkqubo eqhubekayo yokungeniswa. Ngolu hlobo lokuqulukwa kwemiqathango, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzise umphako weBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente orhulumente odlula kuMsebenzi weMsebenzi weCandelo weMpandelo weMpandelo we-145 we-Endle.

Ngaphambi konyaka ka-1975, amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo ayengasoloko eqinisekiswe kumgangatho wasekuhlaleni kwaye ngokuqhelekileyo ayesetyenziswa kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, kodwa uGitlow wabonisa elinye lamalinge okuqala eNkundla yokuququzelela, oko kukuthi, inkqubo apho amalungiselelo kwiBhili yamaLungelo asetyenziswa khona kumazwana. INkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza ukuba uHlomelo lokuqala lusebenza eNew York ukutyhubela i-Sct Processol Classiase yoMmiselo we-14.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yakwala ngokucacileyo ukuququzelelwa koMphetho-mda weSihlanu weSihlaziyo sikaGadi yeSidlo soMgaqo-nkqubo noMphengululo weSebendethi, kwaye ayizange ithethe ngoMgaqo-nkqubo wesiThathu. Phantse onke amanye amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo ngoku asebenza koorhulumente bakarhulumente abafanayo ngamandla asebenza kurhulumente worhulumente, ngokusisiseko eguqula ukhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye eMelika.

Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo LukaClaus: Isiseko Samalungelo Abemi

Akukho Rhulumente izakukhanyela nawuphi na umntu okwigunya lakhe ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho. Igalelo elisetyenziswa kakhulu -- kunye nelithiwa rhoqo--- igalelo kwintengiso yemithetho, "ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho", olubala ibala elibala elibala kakhulu kwiimeko ezininzi zephawu, kuquka iBrown v. Board of Education (racial colution), Roe v. Wade (amalungelo okukhutshwayo), Bush. Gore (ukhunjulwano), Reed v. Reed (gencerrecer), kunye neYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya. Bakke (amacandelo emfundo).

I-Acticole Protection Claus yabhalelwa ukwenza ukuba imithetho echasene nolwaphulo-mthetho yoMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1866 kunye nokuthintela ukugcinwa kwemithetho eBlack Codes yamazwe asemazantsi. IiMithetho eziBlack zamiselwa ngamazwe aseMazantsi emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya eyawamisela ngokuqatha amalungelo nenkululeko yaseAfrika, izama ukugcina inkqubo yomgangatho ophantsi wobuhlanga phezu kwayo nje ukupheliswa kobukhoboka.

Umgangatho we Scrutiny

Iinkundla ziye zavelisa ithala leencwadi ezintathu zokuhlola ukuqwalasela imingeni elinganayo yokukhusela: urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba isenzo sakhe siqhubela phambili umdla onyanzelisayo karhulumente yaye silungiselelwe ngokulula ukufikelela loo mdla; uphando lwe- Intermediate: urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba isenzo sakhe siqhubela phambili umdla obalulekileyo kurhulumente ngokusebenzisa iindlela ezinxulumene ngokusondeleyo naloo mdla; uhlolo lwe-gationalinmental lumele lubonise ukuba isenzo sikarhulumente asinxulumene ncam nomdla ofanelekileyo karhulumente.

Umgangatho wokuhlolwa umisela indlela ekunzima ngayo urhulumente ukuthethelela unyango olwahlukileyo. Uhlalutyo olungqongqo lusebenza kwiindidi ezisekelwe kuhlanga, kwimvelaphi yesizwe, nakukwahluka, kwakunye nemithetho ethwesa umthwalo wamalungelo asisiseko. Intermediate incacing isebenza kulwahlulo lwamadoda. Uhlolo lwesiseko, olona mlinganiselo lusondeleyo, lusebenza kwezinye iinkalo, kuquka ezo zeminyaka okanye imeko yezoqoqosho.

Imfuneko yenyathelo leRhulumente

The State Action Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prevents discrimination or other violations of rights by state agents or government entities, but not private actors. In the Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Court ruled that Congress cannot prohibit purely private discrimination under Section One, which applies only to state action.

Noko ke, iqumrhu labucala elenza umsebenzi kawonke-wonke okanye elinxulumene ngokusondeleyo norhulumente lingase lithotyelwe uMphetho-mda. KwiShelley v. Kraemer (1948), iNkundla yathi ukunyanzeliswa komthetho wokuthintela intsebenziswano emiselwe ngokobuhlanga kwawuphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Celaus. KwiBriton v. Wilmington Parking Aguement (1961), ivenkile yokutyela i-openst indawo ebolileyo kwigaraji kawonke yayayayayayayayayayayayayaya kufutshane kakhulu nesizwe kangangokuba ucalulo lwalo lwalo lwasemthethweni.

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

Inguquko, ingakumbi icandelo layo lokuqala, yenye yeenxalenye ezicacisiweyo zomGaqo-siseko, ebumba isiseko sezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, njengeBrown v. Board of Education (1954; ukuthintela ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke), uLong Virginia (1967; ukuphelisa ukuvalwa komtshato ngokweentlobo ezahlukeneyo), Roe v. Wade (1973; ukuqaphela le miba yolawulo... la matyala kunye nabanye abaninzi baye baguqula ibutho lamaMelika kwaye bayaqhubeka bephembelela impikiswano engokwasemthethweni nezobupolitika.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Emva kwesigqibo seNkundla ngo1896 kaPesby v. Ferguson, ukwahlukaniswa kwezikolo zikawonke wonke okusekelwe kuhlanga kwakuvunyelwa ngamaphondo ukuba iziko "lalingana," kodwa uBrown wasirhoxa eso sigqibo, elawula ukuba nakuluphi na "umgangatho" wezakhiwo, ukwahluka akulingani ngokwemvelo. Esi sigqibo sahlukeneyo saphawula utshintsho kwimbali yamalungelo abantu baseMelika, sivakalisa ukuba ulawulo lohlanga olumanyeneyo kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwalwaphula i-Excolet Protection Classias.

Brown v. iBoard of Education ayizange iluphe ngoko nangoko ucalucalulo lwezikolo, kodwa yanika isiseko somGaqo-siseko seKhampathiso yamaLungelo eWork. Esi sigqibo saqonda ukuba ukwahlukana ngokwako kwabenzakala ngokwengqondo abantwana baseAfrika kwaye kwawakhanyela amathuba emfundo alinganayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba izakhiwo zokwenyama ziyafana na.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Indlu yowiso-mthetho yaseLouisiana yayiphumele umthetho ofuna ukuba abemi abantsundu nabamhlophe bakhwele ngokwahlukeneyo, kodwa balingana, balingana, balingana, bahamba ngeenqwelo-mafutha, kwaye ngo1892, iLouisiana amapolisa abamba uHomer Adolph Plessy . waye engowakwasixhenxe kwisibhozo sooModel Caucasiaan, ngenxa yokuba wayehlala kwinqwelo-mziloliwe eyayigcinelwe "abamhlophe kuphela" kuba wayengavumi ukuya kwinqwelo-loliwe eyahlukileyo egcinelwe abamnyama. Kwisigqibo se7-1, iNkungalo yayisithi xa izakhiwo zilingana, ukwahlulwa kwabo kwanele iSinyuso seshumi elinesine seSiphelo.

Isigqibo sePlesby saseka imfundiso "ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo" eyaya kuvumela ukwahlulwa kohlanga phantse iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu. Le nkcazelo ye-Uncili Yokhuseleko luka-Claus yavumela amazwe ukuba agcine iinkqubo ezibanzi zocalulo lobuhlanga, ezichaphazela zonke iinkalo zobomi bukawonke-wonke ukusuka kwizikolo ukuya kwiendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke.

Virginia (1967) enothando

Yiqhinga elisesikweni lokukhusela imitshato phakathi kwabantu ngokubhekiselele kwisiseko sokwahlulwa kobuhlanga kuphela kukwaphulwa koMthetho weSimendo weshumi elinesine. KuMgaqo-nkqubo weSikolo soMsebenzi weSizwe nowe-Virginia, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yawisa imithetho ethintela ukutshata kwabantu beentlanga ezahlukeneyo, ikholelwa ukuba imithetho enjalo yayaphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo nowe-Cestial Claus nowayi-Celasko ka-Cekelas. Esi sigqibo saphelisa ukungenwa kwemithetho echasene nomthetho echasene ne-ocescegene eyayikho kumaphondo alishumi elinesithandathu ngelo xesha.

UGideon . Wainwright (1963)

Kwisigqibo esamkelwayo kuGidiyon kunye noWainwright, iNkundla yathi ukuSinyuswa kweSithandathu kweSindululo sisiqinisekiso sesiluleko singulungelo elisisiseko, yaye uLawulo loMgunyaziso lwe-14 ludlulisela ilungelo eliya kubamangalelwa kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, kuquka abo bamangalelwa ngetyala letyala elibi. Esi sigqibo saguqula ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho ngokufuna ukuba amagqwetha anike amagqwetha ajongene nezityholo ezinzulu.

Reed v. Reed (1971)

Reed v. Reed yaphawula okokuqala iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho osekelwe kucalucalulo lwezini ngokwesini phantsi koKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus. Emva kokufa kwesibini esiqhawule umtshato uSally noCecil Reed's, umthetho kazwelonke wamisa indoda njengomlawuli wesigxina sonyana wayo. Inkundla yathi le njongo izenzekelayo yamadoda yalwaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo luka Claus, ivula umnyango kwiingxaki ezilandelayo kwimithetho esekelwe kwisini.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

ISindululo seMithetho yeshumi elinesine kufuneka isizwe sivume umtshato phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esinye nokuwuvuma umtshato phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esifanayo xa umtshato wabo ugunyazisiwe ngokusemthethweni kwaye usenziwa ngaphandle kwesizwe. Esi sigqibo samisela ukulingana komtshato njengelungelo lomgaqo-siseko, siphethe loo mithetho yesizwe ekwalela umtshato onxulumene neentlobano zesini ezifanayo, yawuphula ngokwasemthethweni i-Adct Procession Claus ne-Acime Protection Clausleas.

Izicelo zaNgoku kunye nokuReleva

UMthetho - siseko we - 14 uyaqhubeka udlala indima ebalulekileyo kwiingxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni nezezobupolitika zanamhlanje.

Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Nenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe

ISindululo soMphengululo seshumi elinesine siqinisekisa ukuba amatyala kufuneka anikeze iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kuquka ilungelo lokunika isiluleko, ukukhusela ekuzichaseni, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, kunye nezinye izikhuseli zomthetho ezininzi. Ezi nkxaso zinceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa bafumana amatyala asesikweni kwaye urhulumente akanakubanyanzela ukuba bahluthe abantu ngenkululeko.

Ukufakwa kweBhili yamaLungelo kuMphetho-Mgaqo weshumi elinesine kuye kwavelisa imilinganiselo efanayo yenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho kuwo onke amazwe. Ngoxa amazwe egcina ulungelelwano oluthile kwiinkqubo zawo zomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, amele ahlonele ukukhuselwa okusisiseko komgaqo-siseko osebenza kwilizwe lonke.

Imfundo Namathuba Alinganayo

Ukwakhelwa kweBrown/. Board of Education, i-Actal Protection Claus Claus iyaqhubeka ibumba inkqubo yemfundo kunye noqheliselo. Iinkundla ziye zaxubusha imiba esukela kwimali edityanisiweyo yesikolo ukuya kuvuma ukuthatha inyathelo ekholejini ukuya kumalungelo abafundi abakhubazekileyo. Iinkqubo zekholeji ezamkelekileyo zaphula i-Encility Protection Claus device xa zazingenayo ingqalelo olufanelekileyo kwaye zingenanjongo zifuna ukusetyenziswa kohlanga, ngokunganqandwayo ngendlela engafanelekanga, ezibandakanya ukusetyenziswa kobuhlanga, nokunganikwa kwemiqatha.

Ukuvakalisa Amalungelo Nomelo Lwezobupolitika

UKhuselo olulinganayo lufuna umelo olulinganayo lwemithetho elawula bonke abemi abakurhulumente, kungakhathaliseki ukuba bahlala phi, njengoko abalawuli bemithetho bemela abantu, kunokuba bamela imimandla, kunye nokuvota okunzima ngokwahlukileyo ngokoko kuhlala abemi. Lo mgaqo, osungulwe kwiReynolds v. Sims (1964), ufuna ukuba amaphondo owiso-mthetho atsalwe ngabemi abalinganayo, eqinisekisa ukuba ivoti yomntu ngamnye ithwala ubunzima obulinganayo.

Ubumfihlelo Nobuchule Bobuqu

I-The <

Ucelomngeni Nezinto Ezisikelwe U umda

Phezu kwako nje ukuguquka kwayo, uMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine awusoloko uzalisekisa isithembiso sawo sokhuseleko olulinganayo nenkqubo efanelekileyo yabo bonke abantu baseMerika. AsingoMphetho we-14 kuphela owasilela ukudlulisela iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo; kwakhona yasilela ukukhusela amalungelo abemi abaNsundu, kodwa ifa lokuvuselelwa kwakhona yaba ngumzabalazo ozimiseleyo wabaNsundu nabemi abamhlophe wokwenza isithembiso soMphengululo we-14 ube yinto yokwenene.

Ukusebenza kwempumelelo yempiliso kuxhomekeke ekutolikeni kwekomiti yetyala, kwinyathelo lowiso-mthetho, nasekunyanzelweni kolawulo oluphezulu. Ukutyhubela imbali, umlinganiselo wokukhuselwa kweMigaqo-nkqubo yeshumi elinesine uye wanda kwaye wafumana ngokusekelwe ekutshintsheni kweentanda-bulumko zomthetho, iimeko zobupolitika, kunye nentlalo. Ukuqonda le mpembelelo kunceda abemi balapho baqonde oko kuphunyezwe kokulungisa kunye nocelomngeni lwayo oluqhubekayo.

Inyathelo Lesizwe

Imfuneko yokuba uLawulo lweshumi elinesine lweMimiselo-Mithetho lusebenze kuphela kwisenzo sikarhulumente, kungekhona ihambo yangasese, iye yasikelele ukufikelela kwayo ekusingatheni ucalulo namalungelo abantu abaphulwe ngabadlali babucala. I-Civil Rights Cases (1883) yakholelwa ukuba ukuLandlwa kweMimiselo yeshumi elinesine akugunyazi ukuba inqande ucalucalulo ngabantu abazimeleyo. Oku kuthetha ukuba ucalucalulo lwabucala, nangona lunokuhlaziywa, ngokuqhelekileyo alwaphuli uMphengululo we-149.

Iinkcazelo ezitshintshayo

Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko akumi ndawonye, kwaye intsingiselo yamalungiselelo oMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine iyaqhubeka iguquka. Iintanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo zomthetho zijonga utoliko lomgaqo-siseko ngokwahlukileyo, ezinye zigxininisa ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kunye nezinye ezigxininisa kwimilinganiselo ejikelezayo kunye namaxabiso akhoyo. Ezi ngxoxo zokucacisa zichaphazela indlela ukulungisa okusebenza ngayo kwiimeko zale mihla abakhenkcezeli abangenakuyilindela.

Amandla eKhomishini

INkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza ukuba iCandelo 5 leNkundla leMpahla elinika igunya lokunyanzelisa i-Actal Protection Clause kumatyala awalayo ukuphinda aguqule iMithetho yawo eBlack. KwiKattenbach v. Morgan (1966), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukupheliswa kwamalungelo oLuntu kuMgaqo-siseko wokuphelisa iimvavanyo zonyaka ka-1966, ngokuthi iBhunga lingawandisa amalungelo abantu kunokuba liphinde landise ijaji.

Ngoko, umlinganiselo wamandla ombutho phantsi kweCandelo 5 ubephantsi komda wokugweba. IsiXeko saseBoerne . Flores (1997) sala ukusetyenziswa koMthetho weNkululeko yoLuntu kurhulumente kuba saguqula amalungelo phantsi koMdla woKhuseleko weFree Claus, kunokuba sikhusele amalungelo akhoyo. Esi sigqibo saseka ukuba iCandelo lesi-5 lamandla alungiswayo kunokunyanzeliswa kwelo likhulu elingaphantsi komthetho-$Chonarverer linganyanzelisa amalungelo aqatshelwa ziinkundla kodwa lingenakuwandisa ngokwalo umlinganiselo wamalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

KwiFitzpatrick v. Bitzer (1976), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba Icandelo 5 loMbutho woLawulo lweshumi elinesine woMthetho oLandliweyo livumela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba amisele ukuthintelwa kolawulo lombuso. Eli gunya livumela iBhunga ukuba ligunyazise ukumangalelwa kwabucala ngokuchasene namazwe ngokwesi-14 ngokuphulwa kweMpanziso-Mpanzi, linikeze inkqubo ebalulekileyo yokunyanzelisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

Izizathu Ezisebenzisekayo Kubemi

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine kunika abemi amandla okuqonda nokuqinisekisa amalungelo abo asemthethweni. Ukulungisa ukhuseleko lwalo kuchaphazela ubomi bemihla ngemihla ngeendlela ezininzi, ukuqinisekisa ukuphathwa kakuhle konxibelelwano lukarhulumente kunye nokukhusela imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho nokuqinisekisa ukuba kufikelelwa kwiinkqubo ezingokwasemthethweni.

Ukuwaqonda Amalungelo Akho

Abahlali bafanele baqonde ukuba uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine luqinisekisa ukukhuselwa okuthile okusisiseko nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente nesorhulumente wasekuhlaleni.Oku kuquka ilungelo lokuphathwa ngokulinganayo phantsi komthetho kungakhathaliseki ukuba luluphi uhlanga, ilungelo lokuqhubana ngokusesikweni ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente akunyanzelise ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, kunye nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente okungekho ngqiqweni.

Ubandakanyeko Nezomthetho

Imbali yoMmiselo weshumi elinesine ibonisa ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko awazinqumlisi. Afuna ukuba abemi, imibutho yokuphatha inzala yesizwe, amagqwetha, kunye namagosa anyuliweyo ukuba enze utshintsho lube nentsingiselo ekusebenzeni. Ukuqonda amalungiselelo olungiso lwezindululo kwenza abemi bakwazi ukuba nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi nokuxhasa imithetho ehlonela imigaqo-siseko.

Ukuphinda-phinda Okusemthethweni

Xa urhulumente ephula amalungelo e - 14th Amendment, kusenokubakho iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokunyanga ezisemthethweni. Ezi ziquka ukumangalelwa kwemithetho efuna ukuphelisa izenzo ezingekho mthethweni, ilahleko ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko, okanye ukumangalelwa ngetyala ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu.

Ukuqhubeka Kwenkqubo Yendaleko Yokwenziwa Komthetho Wokuhlaziywa

ISihlaziyo seshumi elinesine siseyinxalenye ephilayo yomthetho womgaqo-siseko, uqhubeka uqhelanisa neemeko ezintsha kunye neengxaki. Iingxoxo ezingelungelo lokufumana ilungelo lokufihla intloko, ukukhuselwa okulinganayo, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo ibonisa ukuba ukuhlaziywa okuqhubekayo nokunamandla.

Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zaxubusha imibandela esusela ekuvumeni, ekutshatiseni ngokwesondo, kumalungelo okuqhomfa, kwiinkqubo zokuvota, zonke phantsi kwesiseko soMthetho ohlaziyiweyo we-14. Ezi zigqibo zibumba intsingiselo esebenzayo yokukhuselwa komGaqo-siseko kwaye zichaphazela izigidi zobomi bemihla ngemihla bamaMerika.

Oovimba Bemfundo Nemfundo Engakumbi

Abami abafuna ukuqinisa ukuqonda kwabo ngoMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine banakho ukufikelela kwimithombo emininzi yemfundo. [[FLT: 0] Iziko lomGaqo-siseko wesizwe [[FLT: 1] linikela iinkcukacha ezibanzi ngembali yomgaqo-siseko kunye nokutolikwa. Ababoneleli boMazwe [ banika unikezelo kumaxwebhu embali kunye nezinto zokufundisa malunga nokubuyiselwa komGaqo-siseko kunye nokwenziwa kwasekuqaleni.

Isiseko sogcino-lwazi olusemthethweni olunje [[Qumrhu: 0] IZiko loLwimi loLwimi lweSikolo soMthetho linikela ukufikelela ngokukhululekileyo kwizigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, umbhalo womGaqo-siseko, kunye nohlalutyo olusemthethweni. Ezi zixhobo zinceda abemi bakwazi ukufunda amatyala aphawula iziganeko zenkcazo zemali nokuqonda indlela iinkundla eziye zatolika ngayo uLawulo lwe 14

Imibutho yezemfundo, amathala eencwadi, nemibutho yezentlalo idla ngokunikela iinkqubo nezinto eziphathelele umthetho wezomthetho-siseko namalungelo abantu. Ukusebenzisa ezi zinto kunceda abemi bafumane iimbono ezithe kratya ngemibandela yomgaqo-siseko baze babe nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi.

Iinkalo Eziphambili Zobumi Obunembopheleleko

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lumela enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo eziphunyezweyo kwimbali yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Amalungiselelo alo aguqula ulwalamano phakathi kwabantu norhulumente, amisela ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lwaseburhulumenteni ekuphunyezweni kwamalungelo asisiseko. Ukuqonda iinxalenye ezingundoqo zolungiso lwezi nkonzo kunceda abemi ukuba baxabise ilifa labo lomGaqo-siseko baze bawaqonde amalungelo abo neembopheleleko zabo.

Ukhuseleko lwekhova

  • Ubumi babo bonke abantu abazelweyo okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuba baluphi uhlanga okanye abazali
  • Ukukhuselwa kwemithetho okulinganayo, ukuthintelwa kokuphathwa kocalulo ngurhulumente
  • Imigaqo yokukhusela elindelekileyo eqinisekisa iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla yabantu
  • Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo asisiseko kwinkqubo
  • Ukusetyenziswa kweBhili-mali yamaLungelo kukhuselo lorhulumente ngokubandakanya
  • Amandla eBhunga okunyanzelisa le migaqo-nkqubo ngomthetho ofanelekileyo

Intsingiselo Yembali

  • Isigqibo sikaDrede Scott saza samisela ubuzibulo
  • Ifake isiseko somGaqo-siseko sokuphelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga
  • IBhili eMveli yamaLungelo eSikhuseli-mali kurhulumente
  • Ucwangciso lokukhusela amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yabo
  • Ungenelelo olugunyazisiweyo lukarhulumente lokukhusela amalungelo eenkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho

Iinkqubo zekhompyutha

  • Iqinisekisa iinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezifanelekileyo kumatyala karhulumente
  • Imithetho nezenzo zocalulo ezigunyaziswa ngurhulumente noorhulumente
  • Ikhusela amalungelo okuvota kunye nomelo lwezobupolitika
  • Ikhusela amathuba emfundo nokufikelela kwiinkonzo zikawonke-wonke
  • Ibonelela ngenkqubo yokuphendula imiba yamalungelo oluntu

Isiphelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine singumthombo womthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMerika kunye namalungelo abantu. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yayo emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya ukuya ekusebenzeni kwayo ngokuqhubekayo kwiimbambano zomthetho zale mihla, utshintsho luye lwalomeleza kakhulu ibutho lamaMelika norhulumente. Ukuqinisekiswa kwawo ngobumi, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo inika wonke amaMerika ukhuseleko oluyimfuneko kwaye imisela imigaqo esisiseko yokusesikweni nokulingana phantsi komthetho.

Ukuba ngummi onegunya kufuna ukuqonda ezi zikhuseli zomGaqo-siseko kunye neziphumo zazo ezisebenzisekayo. Imbali yeshumi elinesine yoMphetho-mva-guquko ibonisa ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko akayomigaqo nje engekho kodwa ahlalayo afuna ukuqwalaselwa, ukulawulwa, nokugcinwa komthetho. Ngokuqonda amalungiselelo, izicelo ezibalaseleyo, kunye neendaleko, abemi bangawaxabisa ngakumbi amalungelo abo, baphumeze iimbopheleleko zabo zezentlalo-ntle, baze bathabathe inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi.

Isithembiso sokulungisa sokhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo kubo bonke abantu sisengumsebenzi oqhubekayo, ofuna ukuba isizukulwana ngasinye sisebenzele ukwenza ezi ziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko zibe nentsingiselo ekusebenzeni. Ngemfundo, ukubotshwa kwemiqathango yesizwe, kunye nokuzibophelela kumgangatho womgaqo-siseko, abemi banokunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba uMphengululo weshumi elinesine uyaqhubeka ufeza injongo yaso ebalulekileyo yokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nokukhuthaza ukulingana phantsi komthetho.

Ukuze ufumane ulwazi olungakumbi ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nemfundo yoluntu, tyelela U.S. izibonelelo zemfundo kwaye uhlole ubutyebi bezinto ezikhoyo ngaphaya .gov, enika ukufikelela kwimbali yowiso-mthetho, amaphepha esiseko, kunye nobuncwane bemfundo ngorhulumente nomthetho waseMelika.