Table of Contents

Iinkundla zingamaziko asisiseko kulo naliphi na ibutho ledemokhrasi, asebenza njengesiseko senkqubo yokulawula nokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho iyatolikwa, iyasetyenziswa, kwaye iyanyanzeliswa. Kubemi bemihla le, ukuqonda oko kwenziwa ziinkundla nendlela esebenza ngayo kubalulekile ukuze bazi amalungelo akho, balawule imingeni engokwasemthethweni, kwaye baqonde indlela okusesikweni okugcinwa ngayo kuluntu lwethu. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luza kukuhambisa ngayo kuyo yonke into ofuna ukwazi ngayo ngeenkundla, ukusuka kwimisebenzi yabo esisiseko ukuya kwiinkqubo ezintsonkothile eziqinisekisa ububulungisa noxanduva.

Yintoni Ebalulekileyo Iinkundla Yaye Kutheni Zibalulekile?

Iinkundla zinikela indlela yoxolo yokugqiba iimbambano zabantu abangenakuzicombulula. Ngaphandle kwale ndima isisiseko, iinkundla zifeza iinjongo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo kwibutho labantu. Zichaza imithetho edluliselwe yizindlu zowiso-mthetho, zicombulula iingxabano phakathi kwabantu nemibutho, zikhusela amalungelo omGaqo-siseko, ziqinisekisa ukuba igunya likarhulumente alisetyenziswa ngokuzenzekela nxamnye nabemi.

Imbopheleleko eyintloko yesebe eligwebayo kukunikezela ngegosa elingakhethiyo kwisigqibo sokuxambulisana, esiqinisekisa umthetho kunye nokhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Oku kuthetha ukuba xa unengxaki engokwasemthethweni ("noba kungumbano nommelwane, ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, umcimbi wentsapho, okanye ukungavumelani nombutho karhulumente) kunika inkqubo elungeleleneyo, esesikweni yokucombulula loo mbandela ngokusekelwe kwimithetho emiselweyo nobungqina.

Iinkundla zikho ukuze ziphumeze iinjongo eziliqela ezinxulumeneyo. Iinkundla zikho ukuze zenze okusesikweni, ziqinisekise inkululeko, ziphucule ucwangco lwentlalo, zicombulule iimpikiswano, zigcine umthetho, zilungiselele imigaqo elinganayo, ziqinisekise inkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.

Imisebenzi Ebalulekileyo noxanduva lweeNkundla

Ukuqonda le misebenzi kunceda abemi baqonde ukuba inkqubo yokugweba intsonkothile yaye ibalulekile.

Ukutolika Nokusebenzisa Umthetho

Isebe eligwebayo linegunya lokugqiba ukuba ngumgaqo-siseko wemithetho karhulumente nokucombulula amanye amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente. Eli gunya lokuhlola ityala lingomnye weyona misebenzi ibalulekileyo yeenkundla, ukuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho idluliswa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho nayizenzo ezithatyathwa ngamagosa karhulumente ziyavumelana neemfuno zomGaqo-siseko.

Xa iinkundla zichaza imithetho, zihlolisisa ulwimi lwemimiselo, ziqwalasela iinjongo zabachazi-mthetho, zihlola imizekelo evela kumatyala angaphambili, zize zisebenzise imigaqo engokwasemthethweni kwiimeko ezithile ezizinyani. Lo msebenzi wokuchaza uqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa rhoqo kwaye ngokusesikweni kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo.

Ukucombulula Iingxabano Nengxabano

Le mbambano ibandakanya iingxabano ezininzi, ukususela kwiingxabano ezincinane ezingokwasemgaqweni wempahla ukuya kwiimbambano ezinkulu ezibandakanya izigidi zeerandi, ukususela ekuphathweni kweendleko ukusa kwityala elinzulu lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukususela kwimicimbi yokugcinwa kwabantwana ukusa kwimibuzo entsonkothileyo yezomgaqo - siseko.

Iinkundla zesithili zicombulula iimbambano ngokufumana izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho kwezo zibakala. Le nkqubo yokufumana inyani kunye nokusebenzisa umthetho ingundoqo ngoko kwenziwa ziinkundla zamatyala yonke imihla. ABagwebi nabagwebi baphulaphula ubungqina, bavavanya ukuthembeka kwamangqina, bagqiba oko kwenzekayo ngenene kwimeko ephikisanayo, baze basebenzise imithetho enxulumeneyo ukuze bafikelele isigqibo.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Nenkokeli

Iinkundla zikhusela abantu ekusetyenzisweni ngokungekho mthethweni kwamandla karhulumente. Lo msebenzi wokukhusela ubalulekile kwibutho labantu elilawulwa ngedemokhrasi. Iinkundla zisebenza njengengqwalasela kwigunya likarhulumente, ziqinisekisa ukuba amapolisa, abatshutshisi, abasemaqulungwini, namanye amaqumrhu karhulumente alandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo yaye ahlonela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

Izigqibo zenkundla ezisekelwe kwinkqubo efanelekileyo yeziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. zifuna ukuba kuthatyathwe amanyathelo athile ekuphatheni isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho ukuze umntu akhuselwe ekungeneleni okungafanelekanga kwiLizwe. Ezi zikhuseli ziquka ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokufanelekileyo, ilungelo lokumela ngokusesikweni, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina, ukukhuselwa ekuphandweni ngokungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzumeni, nezinye izikhuseli ezisisiseko ezininzi.

Ukulondoloza Ulungelelwano Loluntu Nentembelo Yoluntu

Iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba abantu bacinga ukuba okusesikweni kufanelekile kwiimeko nganye. Ngaphandle kokugqiba ngokuchanekileyo, iinkundla kufuneka ziqhube imicimbi ngendlela egcina intembelo yoluntu kwinkqubo yokusesikweni. Oku kuthetha ukusebenza ngokucaceyo, ukuphatha onke amaqela ngentlonelo, ukulandela iinkqubo ezimisiweyo, nokucacisa izigqibo ngokucacileyo.

Iinkundla zelizwe zilandela imithetho kunye neenkqubo zokukhusela amalungelo abantu, ziphakamisa umthetho, zigcine ucwangco kwibutho labantu. Xa iinkundla zisebenza kakuhle, zifak' isandla ekuzinzeni kwentlalo ngokunika iindlela ezithe ngqo, ezifanelekileyo zokucombulula iingxabano nokugcina abenzi-bubi benoxanduva.

Ukuqonda Indlela Esetyenziswa Ngayo Inkundla

I-United States inenkqubo entsonkothileyo yenkundla enokuba rhabaxa abemi abangayiqhelanga indlela yayo. Akukho nkqubo inye yomthetho wezolwaphulo-mthetho kweli lizwe. Sineenkqubo ezininzi ezifanayo ezingafaniyo. Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo kubalulekile kukwazi ukuba yiyiphi inkundla esingatha iindidi zamatyala.

IiNkundla zeSizwe

Inkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika yahlulwe yaziinkqubo ezimbini zenkundla: iinkundla zelifa lesizwe kunye neenkundla zeli lizwe. Iingcamango ezimbini ezisisiseko kumGaqo-siseko waseUnited States zichaphazela ilungiselelo lentlangano yeenkundla eUnited States: ukwahlukana kwamagunya norhulumente. Le nkqubo idibeneyo ibonisa imo yesizwe neyorhulumente waseMerika, apho oorhulumente besizwe nabo banezabo izigaba zegunya.

Iinkundla ezininzi zezomthetho, kuquka amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, amakhaya, nentsapho, kunye namatyala abandakanya imicimbi yoluntu. Enyanisweni, iinkundla zeli lizwe, apho kuvela amatyala angaphezu kwama-70 ezigidi nyaka ngamnye, kuchazwe amatyala angaphezu kwama-95% eUnited States. Oku kuthetha ukuba kwimicimbi emininzi yemihla ngemihla engokwasemthethweni, ukuqhawulwa komtshato, iimpikiswano zomntu ohlala kumnini-fa, iingxelo zokonzakalisa, iintshutshiso ezininzi zolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nenkundla yetyala lamazwe zilapho ezi ziza kuthethwa khona.

Iinkundla zomanyano, kwelinye icala, zinolawulo olulinganiselweyo. IBhunga limisele inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho kumgangatho woManyano lokuphendula kulwaphulo-mthetho olumatyala oManyano afana nokuphanga ebhanki, ukuqweqwedisa, nokuthutha izinto ezibiweyo kwiintambo zeRhulumente. Zimbalwa kakhulu iityala eziphantsi kolawulo loManyano loManyano loSizwe norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Iinkundla zoMasipala zikwakwawo nawasemilonke amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente, iimbambano phakathi kwabemi bemishopu equka imibandela ebalulekileyo yemali, imibango ebandakanya urhulumente wase-U.

Inkundla EneeNkundla Ezintathu

Kwinkoliso yehlabathi, iinkqubo zenkundla zahlulwe zibe ngamanqanaba amathathu ubuncinane: inkundla yamatyala, eqala ive amatyala, iqwalasela ubungqina obuyinyaniso kunye nobungqina obunxulumene netyala; ubuncinane inkundla enye ephakathi; kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo (okanye inkundla yesigqibo sokugqibela) ehlola ngokuyintloko izigqibo zeenkundla eziphakathi, ngokufuthi ngokwezizizizinziso ezisesikweni. Le nkundla yesithathu enee-trikithathu ikho kwinkqubo yorhulumente kunye neenkqubo ezininzi zikarhulumente.

IiNkundla zeSithili: Iinkundla zesithili ziinkundla zamatyala jikelele kwinkqubo yenkundla yenkundla yephondo. Iinkundla zesithili zisingatha iityala kwinkqubo yenkundla yenkundla yephondo – zombini engokwamakhaya kunye nezolwaphulo-mthetho. Kumgangatho wephondo, iinkundla zokuvavanya iinkundla eziphezulu, iinkundla zesiphaluka-mthetho, okanye ngamanye amagama axhomekeke kurhulumente. Ezi ziinkundla apho amatyala aqala khona, apho amangqina angqinela khona, apho kunikwa ubungqina, nalapho kunikwa khona iijaji (xa kufanelekile) ezigwebo.

Inkundla ye-Intermeterte Appellate: Kukho iinkundla ezifumana iziphumo-mthetho eziyi-13 ezihlala ngaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., kwaye zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibheno ze-U.S. umsebenzi wenkundla yezicelo ngukugqiba enoba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokuchanekileyo kwinkundla evavanyiweyo okanye kwisebe lolawulo lorhulumente. Amatyala amaninzi aneenkundla eziphakathi ezenza imisebenzi efanayo, ukuvavanya izigwebo zenkundla zetyala ezingokwasemthethweni.

IiNkundla eziPhezulu: Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. mbuso ngamnye ukwanenkundla yawo ephakamileyo, ngokuqhelekileyo ebizwa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo yephondo. Ezi ntena zinegama lokugqibela lokutolika imithetho ngaphakathi kolawulo lwawo kwaye zinegunya lokulawula ukuba ngawaphi amatyala eza kuwaphulaphula.

Iintlobo Ezahlukeneyo Zeenkundla Nezityholo Zazo

Ukuqonda ezi ntlobo zihlukeneyo zomthetho kunceda abemi bazi apho bafanele bazise khona imicimbi yabo engokwasemthethweni noko bamele bakulindele kule nkqubo.

Iinkundla Zezaphuli - mthetho

Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zisingatha amatyala apho urhulumente egweba abantu okanye imibutho etyholwa ukwaphula imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Inkqubo yenkundla idlala indima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba, ichaphazela amabanjwa abekwa ityala aze agwetywe ngetyala lezaphuli-mthetho. Amatyala ezaphuli-mthetho anokusuka kwiimpazamo ezincinane ezifana nokuqhekezwa kwendlela okanye amatyala anzulu afana nokubulala, ukuphanga, okanye ubuqhetseba.

Kwiinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente (omela abatshutshisi) kufuneka angqine ityala lommangalelwa lingaphaya kwamathandabuzo asengqiqweni qha, umgangatho ophakamileyo wobungqina obulungiselelwe ukukhusela abantu abamsulwa kwiinkundla eziphosakeleyo. Abameli kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho banelungelo elininzi lomgaqo-siseko, kuquka ilungelo lokuhlala bethulile, ilungelo lokumela igqwetha, ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala, nelungelo lokumangalela amangqina abo.

Kwakhona aBagwebi basoloko benoxanduva lokugwetywa kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Emva kokuba ummangalelwa egwetyiwe, mhlawumbi ngokumngcelela ukuba unetyala okanye ngokufunyanwa enetyala, ijaji imisa isohlwayo esifanelekileyo kuludwe oluvunyelwa ngumthetho, iqwalasela izinto ezifana nobuqatha bolwaphulo-mthetho, imbali yolwaphulo-mthetho lommangalelwa, kunye naziphi na iimeko ezizizizizo okanye ezibangela ukuba akhuthuze.

Inkundla

Iinkundla zamakhaya zisingatha iimbambano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo − abantu abanobulungu, amashishini, okanye imibutho — apho elinye iqela lizibanga lingxwelerhekile lize lifune imbuyekezo okanye ezinye iindleko. Amatyala amakhaya aquka imicimbi emininzi, kuquka iingxelo zokonzakalisa kobuqu, iimpikiswano zempahla, iimpikiswano zeprojekthi, ucalucalulo, ukungalawuleki kwezamayeza, kunye nokungaqhubi kwezoshishino.

Ngokungafaniyo namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho apho abatshutshisi baqhuba inkqubo, kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni inkundla idlala indima ephambili ekulawuleni imicimbi, ekumiseleni ixesha elifanelekileyo, ekucombululeni iimbambano ezingokwesithethe, nasekucombululeni amatyala ashukumayo ajonge kwizigqibo.

Umgangatho wobungqina kwiimeko zamakhaya udla ngokuba "kukuqwalasela ubungqina," okuthetha ukuba umlahli kufuneka abonise ukuba uguqulelo lweziganeko zabo lubonakala luyinyaniso kunezo, kuno-("umgangatho osezantsi kuno"ukungaqiniseki okusengqiqweni" kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho. Amatyala amakhaya angagqitywa ngabagwebi okanye iijaji, kuxhomekeka kuhlobo lwetyala nezinto ezikhethwa ngamaqela.

Iinkundla Zentsapho

Iinkundla zeentsapho eziphambili kwimicimbi ebandakanya ulwalamano lwentsapho nemicimbi yasekhaya. Ezi nkundla zisingatha uqhawulo-mtshato kunye neenkundla zokwahlukana, iimbambano zokugcinwa kwabantwana nokutyelelwa, ukuxhasa abantwana nokuxhasa imicimbi yokukhulisa abantwana, ukukhuselwa kweentsapho, imiyalelo yogonyamelo lwasekhaya, amatyala okuzala, nemiba yolwaphulo-mthetho yolutsha.

Iinkundla zentsapho zidla ngokuthatha inyathelo elahlukileyo kunezinye iinkundla, ziqonda ukuba imicimbi yentsapho ibandakanya ulwalamano oluqhubekayo (ingakumbi xa kubandakanyeke abantwana) yaye injongo isoloko kukufumana izicombululo ezisebenzayo kuwo onke amalungu entsapho kunokuba nje zivakalise ukuba aphumelele kwaye angaphumeleli. Iinkundla ezininzi zentsapho zinikela iinkonzo zobuxhakaxhaka, iiklasi zabazali, nezinye izinto zokunceda iintsapho zicombulule iingxabano ngendlela eyakhayo.

Inkundla

Inkundla edlulisa isibheno, edla ngokubizwa ngokuba yinkundla yesibheno, inkundla yesibheno, inkundla yetyala lesibini okanye inkundla yesibini, nayiphi na inkundla yomthetho enikwe amandla okuva ityala xa kuthethwa ngesibheno kwinkundla egweba okanye kwenye inkundla esezantsi. Iinkundla zezicelo zisebenza umsebenzi owahlukileyo ngokusisiseko kuneenkundla zamatyala.

Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, iinkundla zokugweba aziwachasi amatyala okanye zive ubungqina obutsha; aziwaphulaphuli amangqina; yaye akukho komiti igweba. Endaweni yoko, iinkundla zetyala zihlola ingxelo ebhaliweyo evela kwinkundla yamatyala(iimibhalo ebhaliweyo yetyala), imiqondiso evunywa njengesiqinisekiso, kunye nesigwebo sejaji eligwebi (*) ukugqiba enoba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenziwe zachaphazela iziphumo zetyala.

Iinkundla zokuhlola imingeni yezibheno kwizigqibo zenkundla ukufumanisa ukuba ityala lilungile na yaye umthetho usetyenziswe ngokuchanekileyo. Ukuba inkundla yetyala ifumanise ukuba iimpazamo ezibalulekileyo zomthetho zenzekile, isenokusiguqula isigqibo senkundla echongiweyo, isenze silungiswe, okanye ithumele elo tyala kwinkundla echongiweyo ukuze kuqulwe ezinye ityala.

Izibheno zidla ngokugqitywa ngamacandelo agweba amathathu amiselweyo. La macandelo abhaliweyo amafutshane abhalwe ngamagqwetha alapho, angava iimpikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo apho amagqwetha aphendula khona imibuzo yabagwebi, aze akhuphe izimvo ezibhaliweyo ezichaza izigqibo zabo.

Iinkundla ezizodwa

Iinkundla ezininzi ezizimeleyo ziye zamisela iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala ngokunempumelelo. Kukho iinkundla ezingamashumi asibhozo zokuwa kwamaxabiso emali e-U. Iinkundla zeBhanki zinceda abantu namashishini angakwaziyo ukuhlawula amatyala abo ukuba "aqaliswe ngokutsha". Ezinye iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ziquka iinkundla zerhafu, iinkundla zezeeprobate (ukuphatha imicimbi nokuthanda), iinkundla ezincinane (ukuze kuxabanana kwamakhaya), iinkundla zeziyobisi, iinkundla zezonyango zengqondo, neenkundla zamatyala.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zidla ngokudibanisa iinkundla ezisemthethweni neenkonzo zonyango, amacebiso okanye ezinye inkxaso ukuze kulungiswe iingxaki ezikhoyo ezinxulumene nezomthetho.

Indlela Iinkundla Ezizenza Ngayo Izigqibo: Inkqubo Yogwebo

Ukuqonda indlela izigwebo ezisenziwa ngayo zinceda ngayo ekupheliseni inkqubo yokugweba nokubonisa indlela le nkqubo esebenza ngayo ukuze iqinisekise ukuba inyanisekile.

Inkqubo Yokuvavanywa

Iityala zingundoqo kwinkqubo yokugweba, apho kuqinisekiswe izibakala eziphikiswayo kwaye umthetho usetyenziswa kwezo zibakala. Kwityala okanye kwinkundla ephakamileyo, ijaji, yaye ngamanye amaxesha inkundla echophela amatyala, iva ubungqina nobungqina kwaye igqibe ityala ngokusebenzisa umthetho kwiingxelo zetyala. Inkqubo yokuvavanya ilandela iinkqubo ezimiselwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba sesikweni kwaye inika amacala omabini ithuba elipheleleyo lokunikela ityala lawo.

Iimvavanyo ziqala ngokuvula iingxelo, apho igqwetha ngalinye lecala lichaza oko lilindele ukuba ubungqina bubonakaliswe. Ummangalelwa oqhelekileyo (kwimicimbi yamakhaya) okanye (kwimicimbi yamakhaya) emva koko unikela ityala lawo kuqala, ubiza amangqina kunye nokungenisa amaxwebhu okanye obunye ubungqina. Icala elichaseneyo linokunqumla i-amine ingqina ngalinye, livavanye ubungqina babo kunye nokuthembeka kwabo.

Emva kokuba ityala ligqibile ukunikela ubungqina, ingqwalaselo inelungelo lokunikela amangqina alo nobungqina. I-atlantiff okanye ukutshutshisa kunganqamleza amangqina akhuselayo. Emva kokuba kunikelwe bonke ubungqina, icala ngalinye lenza iimpikiswano zokuqukumbela zishwankathelise ubungqina kwaye zichaze isizathu sokuba zifanele zoyise.

Indima YaBagwebi

Kwinkundla yamatyala, abagwebi (ababizwa ngokuba ngabagwebi kwezinye iinkqubo zikarhulumente) banetyala lokugcina ucwangco, bagqibe ukuba ubungqina obunikezelwayo abunakwazekwa, baze banike imiyalelo abachopheli-tyala malunga nemithetho esebenzayo kweli tyala. Abagwebi basebenza njengabameli abanobundindilele, beqinisekisa ukuba iityala ziqhutywa kakuhle kwaye ngokwemithetho esemthethweni.

Abagwebi baqinisekisa ukuba imithetho yolawulo lwakhe iyalandelwa kwaye imigaqo namaqela alandela umthetho. Abagwebi baqinisekisa isizathu esilindelekileyo sokuba abaphuli-mthetho abagwebi abagwetyiweyo, balawule ngebheyile efanelekileyo kunye/okanye neemeko zokukhululwa, bamisele imihla yokuchotshelwa kwenkundla, bajonge zonke izindululo zenkundla, bamisele izivakalisi ngokungqinelana nezivumelwano, izicelo zeSebe lokuLungisa, kunye nezikhokelo zokugweba iMinnesota. Le ndima idityanisiweyo ifuna ukuba abagwebi babe nolwazi oluphezulu olusemthethweni, umgwebo ovakalayo, kunye nekhono lokusingatha imicimbi entsonkothile.

Kumatyala ebhetshi (akukho mgwebi), abagwebi banetyala lokuva izibakala zetyala nokugqiba iziphumo zalo. Kwezi meko, ijaji isebenza njengalowo ufumana inyani kunye noMenzi wesigqibo esisemthethweni, ivavanya ukuthembeka kobungqina, ivavanya ubungqina, nokusebenzisa umthetho ukuze ifikelele kwisigqibo.

Indima Yemijukujelwa

ABagwebi, abasebenzi benkundla, amagqwetha, abagwebi nabemi bonke banendima ekuqinisekiseni ukuba okusesikweni kuyaphunyezwa. I Juries imela ilizwi loluntu kwinkqubo yokugweba, ibangela uqwalaselwa kobu bungqina hlukeneyo, izisa iingcinga nengqiqo ecacileyo.

Ijaji eTennessee ine-12 yabemi abakhethwe kwiingxelo zikawonke-wonke, ezifana nokuvota, ukuva ubungqina nokuzenzela isigqibo esisekelwe kwizibakala kwimeko ethile. Ngoxa ubungakanani bejaji kunye neenkqubo zokuchonga inkundla zolawulo zingafani ngolawulo nangohlobo lwemeko, ingcamango esisiseko iyafana: abemi abaqhelekileyo babizwa ukuba basebenze njengabachongi benyaniso kwiingxelo ezingokwasemthethweni.

Ngumsebenzi wabagwebi okanye abagwebi ukuqwalasela ubungqina ngokobuqu, uqwalasele ubungqina, nokucombulula iimpikiswano ezingobungqina obuxhaswayo ngokufumana inyani. Abagwebi kufuneka balube ikhethe labo lobuqu, balandele imiyalelo yomgwebi kumthetho, baze basekele isigqibo sabo ngokubhekiselele kubungqina obunikelwa enkundleni.

Imilinganiselo Yobungqina Nobungqina

Iinkundla zisebenzisa imilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yokungqina ixhomekeke kuhlobo lwetyala. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ityala kufuneka libonise ukuba ummangalelwa unecala "ungaphaya kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni"""""""umgangatho ophezulu kumthetho waseMelika. Lo mlinganiselo ufuna ingqwalaselo ibonisa iziphumo ezinzulu zetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho nomgaqo wokuba kungcono uvumele umntu onetyala ahambe ngokukhululekileyo kunokumgweba umntu omsulwa.

Kwiimeko zabemi, umgangatho udla ngokuba "ngukubaluleka kobungqina," ithetha ukuba i-acttiff kufuneka ibonise ukuba inguqulelo yabo yeziganeko iyinyaniso kunee-"ethe tye", ngaphezulu kwama-50%. Amanye amatyala asekuhlaleni abandakanya imibandela enzulu ngokukhethekileyo (njengokupheliswa kwamalungelo abazali) asenokufuna "ubungqina obucacileyo nobuyiselayo," umgangatho phakathi komphambili weziganeko kunye nangaphaya kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni.

Le mithetho yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo zisekelwe kwinkcazelo ethembekileyo, enxulumene nenkcazelo enxulumeneyo kunokuba zisekelwe kwizinto ezithelekelelwayo, ezilutyelelo okanye ezicalucalulweyo. ABagwebi benza imithetho emininzi ngexesha lokuvavanywa malunga nokuba ubungqina obuthile bumele buvunywe kusini na, belungelelanisa ukubaluleka nobunokuchane nocalucalulo olungekho ngqiqweni.

Izigwebo neMigwebo

Emva kokuqwalasela bonke ubungqina neempikiswano, ijaji okanye abachopheli-tyala bafikelela kwisigqibo. Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, kwityala labachopheli-tyala ngasese, kuxutyushwa ubungqina kunye nokusebenza kwisigqibo esingqinelanayo (kwizityholo ezininzi zolwaphulo-mthetho nakwiimeko ezininzi zamakhaya) okanye kwisigqibo esiphezulu (kumatyala athile asekuhlaleni). Isigqibo simela ukugqiba kwamatyala ezizibakala nokusetyenziswa komthetho njengoko uyalelwa ngumgwebi.

Kumatyala ebhentshi, ijaji ingakhupha isigqibo ngokukhawuleza emva kokuqukunjelwa kwetyala okanye ingathatha umbandela "phantsi koluleko" ize ikhuphe isigqibo esibhaliweyo kamva. ABagwebi bachaza indlela abaqiqa ngayo ngokwezimvo ezibhaliweyo, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezinzima okanye kwiimeko ezibandakanya imibandela ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni.

Isigwebo sokugqibela sisombulula ityala kwinkundla yetyala, kodwa kusenokwenzeka ukuba asipheli.

Inkqubo Yezibheno: Ukuhlolisisa Izigqibo Zenkundla

Ukuqonda indlela umsebenzi osisibongozo onceda abemi baluxabise ngayo ulwaleko olungakumbi lokukhusela inkqubo yokusesikweni.

Iziseko Zokubhenela

Ummangali (ophinda-phindiweyo) uthwala umthwalo wokubonisa ukuba inkundla yamatyala okanye umbutho wolawulo wenza impazamo engokwasemthethweni eyachaphazela isigqibo senkundla yesithili. Asiyompazamo nganye okanye ukungavumelani nesigqibo senkundla evavanyayo esinika iziqinisekiso zokubhena. Iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zihlengahlengisa izigqibo zenkundla zokuvavanywa xa iimpazamo ezicacileyo zisenzekile ezinokwenzeka ezichaphazela isiphumo.

Inkundla ejongene nenkundla echaphazelekayo ingqwalasela imiba yomthetho de novo (oko kukuthi, ngaphandle kokuzibamba kwingxelo yenkundla esezantsi) kwaye isenokusiguqula okanye isitshintshe isigqibo senkundla esezantsi ukuba inkundla ephetheyo ikholelwa kwinkundla esezantsi ngokungekho mthethweni okanye kumthetho. Noko ke, kumthetho oqhelekileyo, inkundla elawulayo ihlolisisa imbambano yento edla ngokunika ukulisusa elityala. Oku kuthetha ukuba iinkundla zenkundla ezilawulayo azikhange zifumane iziququ zesibini okanye iityala okanye iijaji ezichanekileyo zejaji okanye iijaji ezigwetyileyo zetyala ngaphandle kokuba zikho cacileyo.

Inkqubo yoHlelo loMcebisi

Inkundla yezibheno yenza isigqibo sayo sisekelwe kwingxelo yetyala yenkundla yamatyala okanye yombutho. Inkundla yezibheno ayibufumani ubungqina obungakumbi okanye amangqina. Endaweni yoko, abagwebi abaphendulayo bahlola iirejista zengxelo yokuvavanywa, bahlolisise imiboniso evunyiweyo engqinelayo, baze bafunde iingxelo ezibhaliweyo zamaqela ezichaza isizathu sokuba isigqibo senkundla yetyala sifanele siqinisekiswe okanye siphendulwe.

Iqela elinomtsalane, elibizwa ngokuba yi-apnellant, linikela iimpikiswano zomthetho kwiqela elikwisibheno esibhaliweyo, lifuna ukuqinisekisa abagwebi ukuba inkundla egwebayo okanye umbutho wolawulo wenze impazamo enkulu kwaye isigqibo senkundla echongiweyo ngoko ke sifanele siguquke. Iqela elaye laphumelela kwinkundla evavanyayo, elaziwa ngokuba lizizibanga lisisibheno solawulo, liphikisa kwimpendulo emfutshane ukuba inkundla yetyala ilungile okanye ukuba nayiphi na impazamo engenziwangabalulekile ngokwaneleyo ukuchaphazela isiphumo.

Iinkundla ezininzi ezithethayo zikwava iimpikiswano zomlomo, apho amagqwetha amacala ngamanye anikela izikhundla zawo kwaye aphendule imibuzo evela kubagwebi. Ezi mpikiswano zithethwayo zinika abagwebi ithuba lokuqwalasela ubuthathaka kwiingxoxo zamaqela nokuhlola indlela isigqibo sabo esinokuchaphazela ngayo amatyala exesha elizayo.

Izigqibo Zokuthengwa Nempembelelo Yazo

Ngaxesha lithile emva kokuthobela impikiswano emfutshane okanye emva kwengxoxo edluliselwa ngomlomo, iqela lengxoxo liza kukhupha isigqibo, ngokuqhelekileyo likhatshwa luluvo oluchaza indlela echaphazelekayo. Isigqibo singafikelelwa yi 3-0 okanye 2-1 yovoti. Isigqibo siya kuqwalasela kwaye sisebenzise nawaphi na amatyala anxulumeneyo – asele egqitywe yiloo nkundla okanye yiNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Iinkundla zezibheno zisoloko zisingatha amatyala angaphezu kwama-50 000 nyaka ngamnye. Ishumi okanye ngaphantsi kwezi phesenti zezo zigqibo zibhenqiswa kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.

Xa iinkundla ezigwebayo zifumanisa ukuba iinkundla zamatyala zenze iimpazamo ezinkulu, zinokusiguqula ngokupheleleyo isigqibo, zisilungise, okanye zililungise ityala lalo zibuyele kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukuze kuqhutywe ityala elivisisane nesigqibo senkundla egwebayo. Ezi zicombululo ziqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ziyalungiswa kwaye amaqela afumana unyango olufanelekileyo phantsi komthetho.

Abadlali Abaphambili Kwinkqubo Yenkundla

Iinkundla zisebenza ngemigudu elungelelanisiweyo yezifundiswa ezininzi ezahlukahlukeneyo, nganye inendima eyahlukileyo ekuphatheni okusesikweni.

Abatshutshisi kunye neeAttorney zeSithili

kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, abatshutshisi bamela urhulumente kwaye banetyala lokuzisa izityholo kubantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho. I-Attorney yase-U.S. li-attorney eliyintloko lomtshutshisi karhulumente kummandla wakhe okanye kummandla wakhe. Kumgangatho wesizwe, la magosa asenokubizwa ngokuba ngamagqwetha esithili, amagqwetha karhulumente, okanye amagqwetha ephondo.

Abatshutshisi banobuchule obukhulu ekugqibeni ukuba ngamaphi amatyala abamele bawalandele, ziziphi izityholo abafanele bazifake, nokuba bathini na izindululo ezinconyelweyo. Oku kuqiqa kubenza abatshutshisi babe phakathi kwabadlali abanamandla kwinkqubo yobulungisa. Abatshutshisi abasemagunyeni kufuneka balungelelanise umsebenzi wabo ukufuna iinkolelo zabo kunye nembopheleleko yabo yokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kwenziwe, okuquka ukukhupha ubungqina obuvumayo kubamangalelwa nokungavumi ukumangalelwa apho ubungqina bunganele khona.

Izixhobo zokukhusela

Indima yegqwetha elithethelelayo kukumela ummangalelwa kuzo zonke iinkundla zetyala. Ngumsebenzi wabo ukuqinisekisa onke amalungelo anikwa abamangalelwa axhaswa kuyo yonke inkqubo yomthetho wezaphuli-mthetho. Amagqwetha okhuselo asebenza njengabameli babaxhasi bawo, avavanya ubungqina bamatyala, anikela iingcamango ezizezinye, kwaye aqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uhlangabezana noxanduva lwakhe lobungqina.

Isiluleko sokuzithethelela sisenokuba ligqwetha eligcinwe ngasese okanye umkhuseli omiselwe uwonke-wonke. Xa ummangalelwa wesaphuli-mthetho ezimisele ukungakwazi ukuhlawula iinkonzo ezisemthethweni, utyunjwa umkhuseli kawonke-wonke ngenxa yokuba unelungelo lokucebisa. Eli lungelo lomGaqo-siseko liqinisekisa ukuba kwanabamangalelwa abagwebi abagwetyiweyo banezakhono zokumela.

Abasebenzi beNkundla kunye nabaphathi

Ngasemva kwenkundla nganye kukho iqela lezifundiswa ezigcina inkqubo isebenza. Oomabhalana beNkundla bagcina iirekhodi, amaxwebhu efayile, balawula iifayile, kwaye banceda abagwebi ngemisebenzi yolawulo. Iintatheli zenkundla zenza iintetho ezivakalayo, eziyimfuneko ekubheneleni. Abasebenzi bagcina ukhuseleko nemiyalelo enkundla. Abaphathi-mikhosi balungisa iingxelo zemvume zangaphambili kunye nolawulo lwabaphuli-mthetho ababekwe kwityala.

Abaphathi benkundla balawula imisebenzi yezoshishino yeenkundla, kuquka uqingqo-mali, abalawuli babaphathi, ukwenziwa kobugcisa, kunye nolawulo lwamaziko.

Amagcisa Neenkosi Ezikhethekileyo

Kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, amajaji asenokuvelela amatyala athile, imiyalelo yokuphengulula nokufumana imvume yokubanjwa, ukuqhuba ityala lokuqala, ukumisela ibheyile, ukugqiba iintshukumo ezithile (njengokuhamba ucinezela ubungqina), nezinye izenzo ezifanayo. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, abaphathi-mikhosi badla ngokusingatha imibandela ehlukahlukeneyo efana nokusebenza kwangaphambi kwenkundla nokufunyanwa kwayo. La mabamba anceda ekulawuleni imisebenzi yasenkundla ngokusingatha imicimbi yokuqala nemiba enzima, ukuvumela abagwebi ukuba banikele ingqalelo kwiimeko ezithenjiweyo nakwimibuzo enzima engokwasemthethweni.

Iinkundla Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ukuqonda iinkundla kufuna ukuqonda indawo yazo kubume obubanzi bukarhulumente. La masebe amathathu — angoowiso-mthetho, aphethe, kunye nezomthetho — asebenza kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko "yokukhangela nokulinganisela". Oku kuthetha ukuba nangona isebe ngalinye lahlukile ngokusesikweni kwezinye ezimbini, uMgaqo-siseko usoloko ufuna intsebenziswano phakathi kwamasebe.

Ingcamango yeyokuba isebe ngalinye likarhulumente linendima yalo nemimandla yalo yegunya. Isebe lowiso-mthetho limisela imithetho, isebe elilawulayo limisela imithetho, yaye isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho lize licombulule iimpikiswano. Oku kwahlukana kuthintela naliphi na isebe ukuba lifumane amandla angaphaya kwamandla lize linike uhlolo kwizenzo ezingafanelekanga.

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo ilinganisa igunya elilawulayo nelowiso-mthetho kunye nesebe eligwebayo ukubekwa komgaqo-siseko wemithetho kunye nemithetho elawulayo, imigaqo-nkqubo, kunye neenkqubo. Eli gunya lokuhlola ityala, elimiselwe kwityala eliphawulayo leMarbury v. Madison, livumela iinkundla ukuba zibethe imithetho okanye izenzo zikarhulumente ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko.

Noko ke, abagwebi baxhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuze banyanzelise izigqibo zenkundla. Iinkundla azinawo amapolisa okanye umkhosi wokuzalisekisa imiyalelo yabo. Baxhomekeke kumagosa aphezulu esebe ukuze aphumeze imiyalelo yabo, nto leyo ethetha ukuba inkqubo ixhomekeke kuwo onke amasebe ajonge iindima zawo zomGaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho.

Ukufikelela Kubulungisa: Iingxaki Nezicombululo

Nangona iinkundla zinendima ebalulekileyo ebutho labantu, ukufikelela inkqubo yenkundla kunokuba lucelomngeni kubemi abaninzi.

Izithintelo Zokufumaneka Kwenkundla

Nyaka ngamnye, amashumi ezigidi zabantu ajamelana nemibandela equka ukugxothwa, ukwebiwa kwemali, ukuqokelelwa kwamatyala, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ugonyamelo lwasekhaya, nezinye ezingakumbi — ezibangela ukuba abantu abaninzi bangakwazi ukungena kwiinkundla baze bafumane okusesikweni.

Kukho umsebenzi omninzi omele wenziwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo esemthethweni iyafumaneka, iquka, kwaye iyasebenza kubo bonke abantu abayifunayo kungakhathaliseki ingeniso, uhlanga, ubufanasini, imbonakalo yesondo, ubume bokufuduka, ubulwelwe, ulwimi, imfuno yobugcisa, okanye nawuphi na omnye unobangela.

Imiqobo eqhelekile iquka iindleko eziphezulu zamagqwetha aqeshiweyo, ukungakwazi ukuqonda iinkqubo ezintsonkothileyo zomthetho namaxwebhu, imiqobo yolwimi oluthethwa ngabantu abangeyosiNgesi, iingxaki zokufumaneka kwabantu abaneziphene, ukunqongophele ukusiwa kwinkundla yetyala nokungathembani kwenkqubo esemthethweni esekelwe kumava angemava amnandi okanye kucalucalucalulo oluqhelekileyo.

Imigudu Yokuphucula Indlela Yokufumana

Ngokusebenzisana nabagwebi, abasebenzi benkundla, amagqwetha, imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni, izikolo zomthetho, abagwebi abagunyazisiweyo, amanye amasebe karhulumente, nemibutho esekelwe ekuhlaleni, iinkundla zingenza indima ebalulekileyo ekuqhubeleni phambili ukufikelela kokusesikweni kubo bonke. Abaxhasi abaninzi bezezobulungisa basebenza ukunciphisa imiqobo

Le migudu iquka ukuseka amaziko okuzinceda apho abantu benokufumana uncedo ngeefomu zenkundla kunye neenkqubo, ukuphuhlisa iifomu ezilula kunye nemiyalelo ecacileyo yolwimi, ukubonelela iinkonzo zokutolika kubathethi abangeyosiNgesi, ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo ze-intanethi kunye nee-arhente ezibonakalisa ukuvakala, ukwandisa iinkonzo zoncedo olusemthethweni kubantu abafumana imali ephantsi, kunye nokuyila iinkundla ezicazululayo zengxaki ezizinzileyo ezixubusha iingxaki ezisisiseko ezifana nokusetyenziswa kakubi kweziyobisi okanye ukugula ngengqondo.

Iinkundla zeli lizwe zikwindawo ezihlala kulo lonke ilizwe, zenza ukuba kufikelelwe ubulungisa kuwo wonke umntu. Ukufikelela komhlaba kubalulekile, kodwa ukufikelela kobulungisa okuyinyaniso kufuna okungaphezulu nje kubuhlobo obusemzimbeni kwinkundla.

Indlela Abemi Abadibana Ngayo Neenkundla

Uninzi lwabemi luza kunxibelelana neenkundla ngaxa lithile ebomini babo, enoba ngamalungu etyala, amangqina, abagwebi, okanye njengabaqwalaseli. Ukuqonda ezi ndima zihlukeneyo kunceda abemi babe nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni.

Njengoko Kukho Iziganeko Eziza Kuthethwa Ngamatyala

Ukuba ubandakanyekile ekumangalweni kwetyala, -- nokuba ungummangalelwa ozisa ityala, ummangalelwa ophendulayo kwityala lomthetho wendlu okanye iqela kumbandela wenkundla ($) uza kunxibelelana kakhulu nenkqubo yenkundla. Oku kungabandakanya ukuqokelela amaxwebhu, ukuva, ukuba nenxaxheba kwingxoxo yokuphendula, kwaye ufanele ukuvavanywa.

Ngoxa unelungelo lokuzimela (obizwa ngokuba "pro se"), imicimbi yomthetho ingaba nzima, kwaye abantu abaninzi bangenelwa ngokuba negqwetha. Ukuba awunalo ilungelo lokunika igqwetha kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, elinye liya kumiselwa kuwe. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, ungakwazi ukufumana uncedo kwimibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni ukuba ufikelela kwiimfuno zengeniso.

NjengamaNgqina

Ukuba unenkcazelo enxulumene netyala, usenokubizwa njengengqina. AmaNgqina anembopheleleko esemthethweni yokungqina inyaniso phantsi kwesifungo. Ukuxoka phantsi kwesifungo kuxoka, ulwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu. Njengongqina, uza kubuzwa imibuzo ngamagqwetha amacala omabini kwaye kufuneka uphendule ngokusekelwe kulwazi lwakho lobuqu nakugqabaza.

Ukuba ungomnye ongomnye njengengqina, kufuneka uvele ngaphandle kokuba unesizathu esisemthethweni. Ukusilela ukuvela xa uthe wabekwa ityala kunokubangela idelelo lamacala asenkundleni. AmaNgqina anokuba nelungelo lokuhlawula ixesha lawo kunye neendleko zohambo, nangona umlinganiselo uphantsi.

Njenge-ijeror

Abantu basebenzisana neenkundla zephondo ngeendlela ezininzi, njengokukhonza kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala, ukucombulula iimbambano, okanye ukusingatha imicimbi yomthetho. Inkonzo kaJuliry ingumsebenzi wentlalo-ntle kwaye lilungelo, ivumela abemi abaqhelekileyo ukuba babe nenxaxheba ngokungqalileyo ekulawuleni okusesikweni.

Ukuba ubizwe kumsebenzi wejaji, uza kuhamba kwinkqubo yokukhetha apho amagqwetha kunye nejaji ibuza imibuzo yokufumanisa ukuba unokuba ulungile okanye awukhethi. Ukuba ukhethiwe, uzakuva ubungqina, ngabom nabanye abachopheli, kwaye uncede ufikelele kwisigqibo. Inkonzo ka Jury ihlala ukususela kusuku olunye ukuya kwiiveki eziliqela, kuxhomekeke kwityala.

Ngoxa umsebenzi wejaji unokuba nzima, yinxenye esisiseko yenkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika. Abachongi bazisa imilinganiselo yoluntu kunye nengqiqo eqhelekileyo kwiingxoxo zomthetho, beqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kubonakalisa imilinganiselo nolindelo lwabemi abaqhelekileyo kunokuba kube ziingcaphephe ezingokwasemthethweni.

Njengenkundla

Inkoliso yamatyala avulelwe uluntu ngokubanzi, ebonakalisa umgaqo wokuba okusesikweni kufanele kube nokungabi natyala. Abahlali bangaya kumatyala nokuchotshelwa ukuze baqwalasele indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, bafunde ngayo ngeembambano zomthetho, okanye balandele amatyala omdla woluntu. Oku kufikelela kuwonke wonke kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu bamele baphendule kwaye kugcine intembelo yabo bonke abantu kwinkqubo yokusesikweni.

Ezinye iinkundla azivalwanga ukukhusela imicimbi yangasese okanye inkcazelo evakalayo, ngokomzekelo, ukuthethwa kwenkundla yabantwana, imicimbi ethile yomthetho weentsapho, okanye amatyala abandakanya iimfihlelo zorhwebo. Kodwa umthetho jikelele ngowokuba iinkundla zisebenza ngokubonakalayo kuwonke wonke, uvumela abemi ukuba babone okusesikweni kwenziwa.

Ukubaluleka Kwenkululeko Yokugweba

Ukuze iinkundla zisebenze ngendlela efanelekileyo, abagwebi kufuneka bazimele ngokukhululekileyo (h) kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, kwiimbono zikawonke-wonke, okanye kwimpembelelo kwamanye amasebe karhulumente. Ukuzimela geqe kuyimfuneko ukuqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zigqiba amatyala asekelwe kumthetho nakwiinyaniso kunokuba zithatyathwe njengemvo ethandwayo okanye yezopolitiko.

Inkundla nganye yesithili inejaji yeSithili enye eUnited States, emiselwe nguMongameli kwaye eqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNdlu zeMali ukuze iphile. Lo bomi babagwebi besizwe buyilelwe ukuba babakhusele kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika. Bayakwazi ukuqhubeka bekhonza ixesha elide njengoko begcina "isimilo esihle," kwaye banokutyunjwa kwaye basuswe yiBhunga. Le nkqubo ilungelelanisa inkululeko kunye nokuziphendulela.

Abagwebi belizwe bakhethwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo , ezinye zinyulwa, ezinye zinyulwa, kwaye ezinye zijongwa ngonyulo emva kokumiswa kokuqala. Indlela nganye ineengenelo neengxaki ngokukhuthaza inkululeko ngexa kugcinwa ulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Enoba iyindlela yokukhetha, usukelo kukuqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi bangenza izigqibo ezisekelwe kumthetho kunokuba baqwalasele ezopolitiko.

Ukuzimela geqe akuthethi ukuba abagwebi abamele babalasele. Abagwebi kufuneka balandele umthetho, izigqibo zabo zinokubhenwa kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo, yaye abagwebi ababandakanyeka kwihambo engafanelekanga banokuqeqeshwa okanye basuswe kwisikhundla. Kodwa kule mida, abagwebi kufuneka bakhululeke ekwenzeni izigqibo ezingathandwayo xa umthetho ufuna oko, ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane nemigaqo esiseko xa besenza oko ngokuchasene noluninzi.

Iinkundla Ngexesha Lokusetyenziswa Kwamanani

Ubuxhakaxhaka butshintsha indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, kuveliswa amathuba kunye nocelomngeni kwinkqubo yokulawula. Iinkundla ezininzi ngoku zinika iinkqubo ze-elektroniki, zivumela amagqwetha namaqela ukuba athumele amaxwebhu kwi-intanethi kunokuba athumele umntu. Oku kugcina ixesha kwaye kwenza inkqubo yenkundla ifikeleleke ngakumbi, ingakumbi kubantu abasemaphandleni abakude kwiinkundla.

Ukuvakala kweendlebe okuye kwaqhutywa ngenkomfa yevidiyo kwanwenwa ngexesha lesifo se-COVID-19 kwaye kuyaqhubeka kusetyenziswa kwiintlobo ezininzi zengxoxo. Ezi ngxelo zidibeneyo zingandisa ukufikelela kokusesikweni ngokuphelisa imfuneko yamaqela, amagqwetha, namangqina okuya kwiinkundla. Noko ke, zikwaphakamisa inkxalabo ngokuqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo, ukugcina inkundla isimilo, nokuthetha ngolwahluko lwamanani olushiya abantu abathile bengenayo i-intanethi ethembekileyo.

Iinkundla zikwasebenzisa ubugcisa ukuphucula ulawulo lwamatyala, ubuchule bokusebenza kwenkundla, kwaye zinika uluntu ulwazi olungcono. Iinkundla ezininzi ngoku zipapasha izimvo, iikhalenda zenkundla, nezinye iinkcukacha kwi-intanethi, zenza inkqubo yokugweba icace kwaye ifikeleleke. Iinkqubo zesigqibo ze-intanethi zivumela amaqela ukuba acombulule iintlobo ezithile zamatyala ngokupheleleyo kwi-intanethi, ngaphandle kokubeka unyawo kwindlu yenkundla.

Njengoko iinkundla ziqhubeka zifumana ubugcisa obutsha, kufuneka zilungelelanise impumelelo nokufikelela kwamaxabiso asisiseko afana nokusesikweni, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokufikelela ngokulinganayo kokusesikweni. Ubugcisa kufuneka buphucule inkqubo yokusesikweni ngaphandle kokwenza imiqobo emitsha okanye ukuhlasela abantu abangenazo ii-atmon zobugcisa okanye ubuchule.

Ukuqonda Izigqibo Zenkundla Nomthetho

Izigqibo zenkundla azisombululi nje kuphela amatyala ngamanye, kwaye zikwayila imizekeliso ekhokelwa ngumthetho ekhokela amatyala kwixesha elizayo. Ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo imizekelo kunceda kucacise ukuba kutheni izigqibo zenkundla zibalulekile ngaphandle kwamaqela aqulethweyo.

Phantsi kwemfundiso yokujongwa kwamehlo (ngesiLatini esithetha "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe"), iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zilandela izigqibo zazo zangaphambili kunye nezeenkundla eziphakamileyo ezilawulwa yizo. Oku kwenza ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho, kuvumela abantu baqonde amalungelo abo asemthethweni neembopheleleko zabo baze bacebe ihambo yabo ngokufanelekileyo.

Xa inkundla igqiba ngetyala elibandakanya umbandela wezomthetho okhoyo okanye elichaza ilungiselelo lomthetho okanye umGaqo-siseko, eso sigqibo siba sisiqalo kumatyala alandelayo aphakamisa imibandela efanayo. Iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zilandele imizekelo emiselwe ziinkundla eziphakamileyo. Umzekelo, zonke iinkundla zelo phondo kufuneka zilandele izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.

Iinkundla ziyakwazi ukuchaza amatyala angaphambili ngokufumanisa ukuba izibakala okanye imiba engokwasemthethweni yahlukile ngokwaneleyo, okanye zinokusilawula isigqibo sangaphambili xa zigqiba ngempazamo izigqibo eziye zagqitywa. Noko ke, iinkundla zidla ngokuhlonela isithethe kwaye zitshintshe umthetho omiselweyo kuphela xa kukho izizathu ezinyanzelisayo zokwenza oko.

Ityala elinye linokumisela imigaqo engokwasemthethweni echaphazela amawaka okanye izigidi zabantu ize iguqule ukuphuhliswa komthetho kangangamashumi eminyaka okanye kwaneenkulungwane.

Imbono Eqhelekileyo Ngeenkundla

Abantu abaninzi baneengcamango eziphosakeleyo ngendlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, ngokufuthi ezisekelwe kwimiboniso kamabonwakude nakwimifanekiso eshukumayo ebeka phambili imidlalo echanileyo.

Myth: Iimeko ezininzi ziya kumatyala. Enyanisweni, amatyala amaninzi aconjululwe ngaphandle kokuvavanywa. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, inkoliso yabamangalelwa igwetyelwa ityala, ngokufuthi njengenxalenye yesicelo nabatshutshisi. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, ezininzi zilungiswa ngengxoxo okanye ngenye indlela yempikiswano njengesixhobo sokuphendula. Iityala zinqabile, zigcinelwe amatyala apho amaqela engenakufikelela kwisivumelwano.

Imbasa: Abagwebi benza izigqibo ezisekelwe kwizinto abazikhethayo. Ngexesha abagwebi bengabantu yaye besenokuba neembono zobuqu, babotshelelwe ngomthetho, imizekelo, kunye nemigaqo yezobugcisa. Abagwebi kufuneka basebenzise umthetho njengoko kubhaliwe, balandele imizekelo enyanzelisayo, kwaye benze izigqibo ezisekelwe kubungqina obunikelwa enkundleni. Abagwebi abasoloko bewutyeshela umthetho okanye bavumele ikhethe lobuqu lichaphazele kwizigqibo zabo ekubheleni, ekukhutshweni, ekukhutshweni, okanye ekususweni emsebenzini.

Imbasa: Ungathetha nantoni na enkundleni. Iinkundla zinemithetho malunga nobungqina obunganikelwayo kunye nezityholo ezinokwenziwa. Indlebe (iingxelo zekhomkhulu ezinikelweyo zenyaniso yazo) iqhelekile. Ubungqina bumele buchane kwimiba yetyala. I-Attorney ayinakwenza iimpikiswano ezingaxhaswa bubungqina okanye umthetho. Le mithetho iqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo zisekelwe kulwazi oluthembekileyo noluqikelelo olusemthethweni.

Umphumo wemyuziyam: ukuphumelela emangalweni kuthetha ukuhlawulwa ngoko nangoko. Nasemva kokuphumelela umgwebo kwinkundla yamakhaya, ukuqokelela imali kunokuba lucelomngeni. Inkundla ayinyanzeli ngokuzenzekelayo imigwebo."iqela eliphumeleleyo kufuneka lithathe amanyathelo awongezelelekileyo okuqokelela, afana nokuhlawula imivuzo okanye ukubeka iimali kwipropati. Ukuba iqela elilahlekileyo alinazinto, umgwebo unokubangagqibeki.

Myth: onke amagqwetha angamagqwetha avavanywayo. Amagqwetha amaninzi anqabileyo okanye awakhe aye enkundleni. Abalawuli bathelekisa kwimimandla eyahlukeneyo.]

Imithombo Yokufunda Okungakumbi Ngeenkundla

Kubemi abafuna ukufunda okungakumbi ngeenkundla nangenkqubo yokugweba, kukho oovimba abaninzi. Iwebhsayithi yenkundla yase-U.S. inikela ulwazi olubanzi ngenkqubo yenkundla yephondo, kuquka izinto zokufundisa, amanani enkundla, kunye neengcaciso zeenkqubo zenkundla. Iinkqubo zenkundla ezininzi zeli lizwe zigcina iiwebhsayithi ezifanayo ezinolwazi ngeenkundla zikarhulumente.

IZiko lesizwe leNkundla yeRhulumente linikela uphando, amanani, kunye nobuncwane bemfundo malunga neenkqubo zenkundla yenkundla yeli lizwe lonke elo. Imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni kwingingqi yakho inganika ulwazi malunga nokufikelela kweenkundla kwaye isenokunika uncedo olusemthethweni olukhululekileyo okanye oluphantsi ukuba ufikelela iimfuno zengeniso.

Iinkundla ezininzi zinikela iindwendwe okanye iinkqubo zemfundo zezikolo namaqela asekuhlaleni. Ukuya kwinkundla yamatyala okanye ukuchophela amatyala njengewotshi yeyona ndlela ibalaseleyo yokubona inkqubo yokusesikweni isebenza kwaye iqonde indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo. Inkoliso yamatyala ivulelwe uluntu, kwaye abasebenzi basenkundleni badla ngokukuyalela kwiinkundla apho amatyala abangel ’ umdla aviwa khona.

Izikolo zomthetho, imibutho yezomthetho nemibutho yasekuhlaleni idla ngokunikela iinkqubo zokufundisa uwonke wonke ngemibandela engokwasemthethweni nangenkqubo yenkundla.

Isiphelo: Iinkundla Njengeentsika Zolawulo - melo

Iinkundla ngamaziko abalulekileyo kumaziko edemokhrasi, alungiselela ukucombulula iimbambano ngoxolo, akhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye nokuqhatha kukarhulumente, aqinisekisa ukuba uya kuphendula phantsi komthetho, agcina ulungelelwano lwentlalo. Ukuqonda oko kwenziwa ziinkundla nendlela esebenza ngayo kunika abemi amandla okuba nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni, enoba ngamaqela amatyala, abachopheli, amangqina, okanye ababukeli abanolwazi.

Inkqubo yenkundla intsonkothile, enemigangatho neentlobo ezininzi zeenkundla ezisingatha iindidi ezahlukeneyo zamatyala. Kodwa olu tshintsho lusekelwe kwimigaqo esisiseko: ukuba iimpikiswano zifanele zilungiswe ngokusekelwe kubungqina nomthetho kunokuba zisekelwe kumandla okanye kugonyamelo, ukuba bonke abantu bafanele baphathwe ngokulinganayo phantsi komthetho, ukuba igunya likarhulumente limele lilinganiselwe ngokwemiqathango yezomGaqo-siseko, nokuba okusesikweni kufanele kufikeleleke kuye wonke umntu kungakhathaliseki ukuba ubutyebi okanye isikhundla.

Ngeli xesha inkqubo yokusesikweni ijongene neengxaki eziqhubekayo − kuquka imiba yokufikelela, ukusebenza, kunye nokuqinisekisa unyango olulinganayo kuzo zonke , ikhusi liyaqhubeka lifeza indima yalo ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni umthetho. Ngokuyiqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo, abemi bangayixabisa ngakumbi le nkqubo ibalulekileyo, bathabathe inxaxheba ngokunempumelelo ngakumbi xa becelwa, kwaye banikele kwimigudu eqhubekayo yokuphucula inkqubo yokusesikweni kuwo wonke umntu.

Nokuba ujongene nembambano engokwasemthethweni, ebizwa ukuba ube ngumgwebi, okanye unomdla nje kwindlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni kuluntu lwakho, iinkundla eziqondayo zikunceda ukuba usebenzise inkqubo kwaye usebenzise amalungelo akho. Iinkundla zezoluntu ezikhonzayo, kwaye ukuba nolwazi lwabemi lubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla ziyaqhubeka ziphumeza umsebenzi wazo wokulungiselela okusesikweni kubo bonke.