Ucelomngeni Lokusebenzisa Ukunxibelelana NemiGaqo-siseko YeRhulumente

Imfundiso yokungeniswa kwayo ngokusisiseko ilungise ulwalamano phakathi komGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kunye nomgaqo-siseko worhulumente ngokwenza uninzi lwemimiselo yamaLungelo anyanzeliswayo nxamnye norhulumente kunye noorhulumente bengingqi ngoMphetho weshumi elinesine. Le nkqubo iqalise ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, le nkqubo iye yandisa ukhuseleko lwesizwe lwenkululeko yabantu kuzo zonke iindawo. Kodwa ukuquququzelela ukudityaniswa komgaqo-siseko kuhlala kusenento esemthethweni, ekwakheni, nayiphi na imingeni engokwasepolitiki. Ukwahluka kombhalo phakathi korhulumente noorhulumente, ukuchasana kweenkundla zikarhulumente, ukuchasana koorhulumente, kunye nokuchasana kwenkundla ephakamileyo kwenza zonke izimvavanyo zeNkuhlela zonke iimeko ezinzima. Ukuqonda ezi zinto kubaluleke kuye kumthetho womthetho womthetho wesizwe, ukudityaniswa kwamalungelo orhulumente, okanye ulawulo lwe-orhulumente.

Ukuphuhliswa kwembali yoNkcubeko

Ukuhlaziywa akuzange kwenzeke ngesiquphe. INkundla Ephakamileyo yabonisa ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuvunywa kwe-Gitlow v. New York (1925), apho yaqikelela ukuba uLawulo Lokuqala Lokukhululeka luqinisekisa ukuba iSivumelwano sisebenza kumazwe phantsi kweMphetho we-145, weSihlalo se-65, weSihlalo se-OF: Claus. Ngaphayaa, u-105 , nowe-81). [NXhosase-engaphakalanga], u-196] u-196, u-193, u-196] u-1946, u-194 , u-Empethofulls, u-Enye u-Afulls [ngangeeye-enye,[4], [4] kunye no-1946] umbaleko olupheleleyo [enye, u-1946], kunye novuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvuvu: [o-19, u-

Kanti iNkundla ayizange yamkele “ukungena okupheleleyo kwendlela yokusebenza kwe-”, apho iBhili yamaLungelo izakusebenzisa khona usasazo. Endaweni yoko, yasebenzisa igalelo elikhethiweyo, igqiba ukuba ilungelo“ elisekelwe kwisiseko somthetho-mthetho waseMerika lixhomekeke kwiqhinga lokusesikweni.” Le ndlela ithe yathe yadala zombini iimfundiso ezingqubanayo nesekungaqondakalini okuthi kumiselwe ngomgaqo-siseko kuxhomekeke kumgangatho ophantsi karhulumente.

Iingxaki Zokubhala Nezenkqubo

Umahluko Phakathi kweSizwe neSizwe

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe uqulethwe ngaphambi kweBhili yamaLungelo karhulumente kwaye ngokufuthi uqulathe imigaqo-siseko ekhethekileyo okanye ebanzi kakhulu. Umzekelo, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe uliqela uqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ilungelo lemfundo, lobume bemeko-bume, okanye lobumfihlo. (UmGaqo-siseko weTexas uquka ilungelo lokuthwala iimfazwe ezahlukileyo kuMphetho wesibini.) Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqulathe ilungelo lolawulo lwasemthethweni, imisela umgangatho we-"asmentias . Kodwa iinkundla zelizwe zisoloko zichaza amalungiselelo afanayo okunika umbutho wesigravelm] kunezowumbini wazowumbuso.

Oku kudala ucelomngeni: ingawachaza amalungiselelo azo omgaqo-siseko kwi-lock Step ngemfundiso karhulumente, okanye ingawandisa ngokwawo amacandelo? Amazwana amaninzi aye amkela “izizathu ezizimeleyo” zokuqiqa, evumela iinkundla zawo eziphezulu ukuba zifikelele kwizigqibo zokutshona kutoliko olulawulayo. Ngoxa amacandelo azimeleyo karhulumente eyinxalenye ebalulekileyo yolawulo lorhulumente, angadala ukhuseleko oluphakathi [[[FLT:]] olungalinganiyo kumacala onke. Umthetho ofanelekileyo eCalifornia unakho ukuthatha imilinganiselo efanayo e-Alabama, kwanaxa la mazwe mabini enegunya elinjalo.

IMigaqo-siseko kaRhulumente oYahlulayo: Umsebenzi othe

Ngokungafaniyo neBhili-ngqulu yeeNkcukacha zamaLungelo, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe wohluka-hlukene ngobude, ngokungqalileyo, nangombandela wento. UmGaqo-siseko wase-Alabama uquka iziphendu ezingaphezu kwama-900, ukubhekisa zonke ukusuka kwirhafu yasekuhlaleni ukuya ekuzingeleni nasekufumaneni amalungelo okuloba. Olu tshintsho lubangela ukuba kusetyenziswe umgangatho omnye wesigqeba sorhulumente. Umzekelo, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo egcinwe [[FLT: 0]] [McDonald. [i City of Chicagoviko[[FLT] [[FLT] [0] [2010]) [2010] iSinyulo sesiBibili sokuHlaziselo sisebenze kumazwe ngakuMhlaziso-mthetho we-mthetho we-mthetho-onke. Kodwa imithetho yemithetho-siseko iyakumiswa ukuba kufune na, imigaqo eyahlukeneyo phantsi kwemithetho yeSigqibo somthetho somthetho somthetho-mthetho-mthetho, nokuba ingagunyazo sigunyazo, okanye ingagunya, imele imele i

Ucelomngeni Lwezinto Eziqhelekileyo Nezithile Eziqhelekileyo

I-Incorpoution vs. Iyonke I-Icorporation

Ukukhetha kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ukubandakanya iindlela zokusebenza kuye kwagxekwa ngenxa yokungabi namigaqo elungeleleneyo. IJaji iHugo Black yaphikisa ngelithi uLawulo lweshumi elinesine lwalungajongwa njengebalulekileyo ukuba lusebenzise lonke iBhili yamaLungelo nxamnye namaphondo. INkundla yala loo mbono, endaweni yokusebenzisa kuphela loo malungelo agqalwa njengabaluleke kakhulu. Kodwa umgaqo “wokungaguquguquki kwemiqathango” uye watshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha, udala ukungaqiniseki. Umzekelo, ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo lalingagqalwa njengeli liyimfuneko de kube ngu-2010, nangona eli xesha lithe labekwa ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Eli xesha lithetha ukuba ukukhuselwa komgaqo womthetho kusenokufunyanwa kunganele ukufunyanwa kungamashumi eminyaka kamva.

Umgangatho wempixano yokuzihlola

Kwanasemva kokuba ilungelo lifakiwe, umgangatho wokuhlola osetyenziswa ziinkundla zikarhulumente unganengquzulwano nemilinganiselo esetyenziswa ziinkundla zikarhulumente phantsi komgaqo-siseko wazo. Inkundla yorhulumente ehlola umthetho wesizwe phantsi kwelungiselelo lokwenza umsebenzi wasimahla isebenzisa igalelo eliqinileyo lenjongo yemithetho [ ye-Smith [ yovavanyo (imithetho engokwasemthethweni jikelele ingumGaqo-siseko), kanti inkundla yelizwe eqwalasela umthetho omnye phantsi kwelungiselelo lonqulo ingasebenzisa uhlolo olungqongqo. Oku kungakhokelela kwiziphumo ezingqubananiyo: umthetho ungasinda kucelomngeni sikarhulumente kodwa ubethelelwe phantsi komthetho. Ngoxa oku kuvumelekile phantsi kwemigaqo yomthetho karhulumente, isongeza ukuntsonkotha komthetho olungeleyo kunye nomthetho omele ulungelelanise imigaqo-mthetho elungeleneyo.

Ucelomngeni Lwezobupolitika Nelusebenzisekayo

Ulongamo lukaRhulumente kunye noLawulo oluPhakathi

Amaphondo amaninzi nemimandla alwayo ukungenelela ulawulo lwawo. Ngexesha lokuhlahlelana kwesikolo, amanye amaphondo aseMazantsi athi iinkundla zorhulumente zagqitha ngokusebenzisa iSikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus kwizenzo zikarhulumente. Kutshanje, amatyala aye arhoxa ekuthinteleni ukuququzelelwa kweSigqibo sesibini soHlaziyo, ephikisa ukuba imithetho yemipu yasekuhlaleni ayimele iphathwe ngokusemthethweni. Ukuchasa kwezobupolitika kungabonakaliswa ekungahambelani nomthetho, imigudu yowiso lwenkundla, okanye “imithetho elawula amalungelo”. Oku kuxhomekeke kwinkqubo yorhulumente apho iNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo isebenza njengenkqululo yokugqibela yentsingiselo yemithetho.

Impembelelo Kwinkqubo Yezaphuli - mthetho

I-corporation iye yaba nempembelelo enkulu kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Amalungelo afana nomthetho weSine Wothambeko owenziwe ngokushiya umthetho ( ), ilungelo leSiHlanu lokuLandlisa ngokuchasene nolwethu ([FLT:]] [[FLD]]MANDA] [] [, kunye noMthetho weSixweso-Mfushaneyo we-Magrandment (iiiiiiiiiiiiii-Gideon[) [iiindlela]) yasetyenziswa kumazwe ngeziphumo eziphezulu. Kodwa iinkundla zigcina igunya elibalulekileyo kulwaphulo-mthetho ngemithetho yawo siqu. Ngoko ke, ezinye iimeko ziye zakhetha ukuphelisa ubungqina obubanzi ([FLT.4] kwiimeko ezifuna ukunyuselwa kwemiqatha yemiqatha yendlela yezamacala elungele ukusetyenziswa kwezomthetho, zithetha phantsi koncedo oluzinziwayo, eziluncedo, eziluncedo, ezithelela phantsi ko

Uhlolisiso Lwemeko: Izigqibo Zokuhamba Ngelizwe

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Ityala lokuqala elingundoqo lokuququzelela, Gitlow v. eNew York, ibandakanya umxhasi wentlalo ovalelwe phantsi komthetho wesijaji sesizwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqikelela ukuba uLawulo lokuqala lokuHlaziya isiHlazo sokuthetha lusebenza kumazwe kumgaqo wenkqubo ofanelekileyo wenkqubo ye 1445 Demigration. Noko ke, iNkundla yaxhasa ukunyanzeliswa kukaGitlow ngenxa yokuba intetho yakhe ibangele “ubungqina nobungozi obukhoyo.” Le sigqibo samisa umgaqo wokusebenzisa isiphiwo kodwa kwakhona uluvo: iNkuqululo ibuye ijonge umthetho kaNew York phantsi komgangatho karhulumente, kodwa ivumele umthetho othintelayo ukuba ume.

McDonald v. iSixeko saseChicago (2010)

Phantse emva kwenkulungwane, McDonald v. IsiXeko saseChicago saquka uHlaziyo lwesibini lweNkqubela yamalungelo ukugcina nokuphatha iingalo. Ityala lavela emva kocelomngeni lothintelo lompu wesandla sikaChicago, iNtlanga yeSebethi exhaswe ngokusekelwe kwimodeli yokuba uHlaziselo lwesibini alusebenzi kumazwe. Kwisigqibo esingu 5-4, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yajika, ifumanise ukuba ilungelo lokuzilawula ngokwayo lingundoqo kwaye lisebenza kuyo yonke indawo. Umthetho kaSamuel Alito ulutle uluvo lwala imbono ethetha ukuba lumele lumisele imilinganiselo yayo yokulawula imipu. Le mpikiswano ebekwe ngolawulo lwezwelo kunye nomgangatho osezantsi, ingakumbi njengeekhothoba eliphantsi [FFFON]

Timbs v. Indiana (209)

u-Timbs v. Indiana, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumelana ukuba intlawulo yentengiso egqithisileyo isebenza kumazwe. Eli tyala labonisa ukuba ukufakwa kwemithetho kuyaqhubeka kuyinto ephilayo. Inkundla ibiyekile ukuqulatha igalelo ku ukuqokelela i-Brown-Ferris Instries v. Kelco Disposital, Inc. [1999], kodwa itshintshe ikhondo elisekelwe kwimbali nohlalulelo. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zifuneke ukususela oko kuphinda imigaqo ye-mthetho elahlekileyo phantsi kwemigangatho karhulumente, nangona ezininzi zichaza ukuba zikhusele ngokuzinyonamkhethelo oluphezulu.

Iimbambano Zexesha Elidluleyo Nemibuzo Engaconjululwanga

Udibaniso Emva [[UMKCU] AmaDobs[[FLT: 1]

Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo siphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngenkqubo efunekayo. Inkundla yeNkundla yamabhinqa yempilo [202], eyabhukuqa Roe v. [[, iphakamisa imibuzo emitsha emalunga nenkqubo efunekayo. Inkundla yamatyala ibambelele kwelokuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa alibalulekanga phantsi koMphetho weshumi elinesine, ibuyisela imbambano kumazwe. Oku kugqibelela ngokufanelekileyo “ukubeka igalelo-” nelungelo elisetyenziswe ezweni lonke malunga neminyaka engama-50. Ibala elibini: inyani: ayithanga njalo. [5] [5] [f]

Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu namalungiselelo KaRhulumente Angenazintlobano

Amanye amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo akafane abekwe kumgangatho wesizwe, okwenza uhlaziyo lwawo lungaqiniseki. Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu, oluthintela ukufakwa kwekota kwamajoni emakhayeni ngaphandle kwemvume, aluzange lufakwe ngokusemthethweni yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, nangona iinkundla ezisezantsi zicinga ukuba luyasebenza. Ngokufanayo, igalelo lebheyile eninzi yebheyile yeSindululo se-Heighth Amend Amend alisekho ngokusemthethweni, nangona oku kuthethwa yiyo ngokungangqalanga kwi-injini [[FLT: 0] kumazwe eUnited States v. Sallerno [1987]). Umgaqo-siseko somthetho wesizwe usoloko uqulethe amalungiselelo ahambelanayo, kwaye iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokuwachaza ngokwahlukileyo kumgangatho womthetho. Oku kukungabikho kokucacisa kwegumbi lokulungisa imicimbi yezo zezomthetho kodwa kwakhona kuyingozi.

Izicelo ezisebenzisekayo zabaququzeleli nabenzi-mthetho

Kumagqwetha achaza amalungelo abantu, ukudlala phakathi kwamalungelo orhulumente adityanisiweyo kunye namabala azimeleyo afuna ubuchule. Umlawuli usenokuphikisana ngobuchule nezimvo zorhulumente zolu rhulumente, efuna owona mgangatho ulungileyo. Abagwebi kufuneka bagqibe enoba baza kulawula kumaziko orhulumente okanye baxhomekeke kumthetho karhulumente ukuze baphephe umbandela karhulumente. Abenzi-mthetho kunye nabalawuli, umgangatho omiswe ngokuqulunqeniswa kwendlela yokuba imithetho yorhulumente ingakwazi ukuchasa amalungelo asisiseko njengoko echaziwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, kodwa banokunikela inkxaso engakumbi.

Umzekelo, emva McDonald, amazwana amaninzi awiswayo “awuphethe u-"awukho imithetho evumela ukungavunyelwa kubekwe, ikhulula imiqathango yasekuhlaleni. Ngokuchaseneyo, afuna imithetho yemipu engqongqo ekufuneka isebenze kulwakhiwo lwesakhelo, ilinganisela ukuvalwa komlomo kwiindawo ezibuthathaka. Amanye amaphondo andise ukhuseleko olungaphaya kwemilinganiselo ye-omini yomthetho, njengokongeza ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo zonke izikhephe zikawonke-wonke, hayi nje kuphela kwisakhiwo solawulo lukarhulumente. Lo msebenzi ufumana iziphumo ezithe ngqo, ezingalinganiyo.

Isiphelo: Ucelomngeni Olunyamezeleyo Lokulungelelanisa Umanyano Nokwahlukahlukana Kwabantu

Ukusebenzisa umgaqo-siseko wesizwe kuya kuhlala kuyinxalenye esebenzayo nephikiswayo yomthetho-siseko waseMelika. Le mfundiso isebenza injongo ebalulekileyo: ukuqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko esisiseko ayinikelwa kwikhethe lasekuhlaleni okanye ekuphathweni kwenkomfa. Kodwa ikwangumsebenzi oqhubekayo, maxa wambi iNkundla ePhakamileyo yanda kwaye ngamanye amaxesha ifumana umlinganiselo wamalungelo. Ukwahlukahlukana komgaqo-siseko, ukuzimela okuchaza kwenkululeko kweenkundla zikarhulumente, kunye nokuchasa okuqhubekayo kwezobupolitika kunegalelo lonke ucelomngeni.

Ekupheleni, ukuququzelela amaxabiso amabini akhuphisanayo: umlinganiselo osisiseko wamalungelo afanayo aqinisekisiweyo kumntu ngamnye waseMerika, nenkululeko yamazwe ukuvavanya nokunika ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo njengoko lubona lufanelekile. Ukufikelela olu mlinganiselo kufuna ukuqiqa okucokisekileyo kwenkundla, ukuhlonela uburhulumente, nokukulungela ukuphinda uqikelelo lwakudala. Njengokuba imilinganiselo esemthethweni iguquka, oogqirha nabenzi bemigaqo-nkqubo kufuneka bahlale besazisile ngenkqubela-phambili yakutshanje ebandakanya imfundiso kunye neempawu ezikhethekileyo zomgaqo-siseko worhulumente ngamnye.

Ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya, bona [[FLT: 0] Iqumrhu lolwazi lomthetho - Incorporation, iprojekthi [[FLT:]Oyez – Imeko zokwahlula-hlula [, kunye SCOUSBOM – Dobbs [. Ezi zixhobo zinikezela ngohlalutyo olunzulu lwemeko neemfundiso ezichazwe ngasentla.