Ilaphu elisemthethweni le-United States lilukiwe ngemisonto emibini ebalulekileyo kodwa ngamanye amaxesha engqubanayo: inkqubo efunekayo kunye nenkqubo elwa nolu ngqubano. Inkqubo yokusebenza iqinisekisa ukuphathwa kakuhle ngenkqubo yokugweba, iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uhlulwayo kubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenawo amalungelo asemthethweni. Umthetho wocalucalulo, kwelinye icala, uzama ukuthintela ukuphathwa okungekho sesikweni okusekelwe kwiempawu ezifana nohlanga, ubufana neentloba zesini, okanye ukukhubazeka. Xa le mimandla i-interdictanication, imibuzo entsonkothekileyo engokokuba ngaba ikhuselwa ngokufanelekileyo ikhuselwa ngokufanelekileyo na amalungelo akwimiqatha ekhuselwe ngokungenakulinganiswa. Ukuqonda oku kugwetyelwa koomthetho, abasebenzi benkqubo, abasebenzi benkqubo, nabameli bemithetho, kunye nabameli bemithetho ebonziwayo kwinkqubo yokulungisa idinga nje kuphela kodwa kuqheliselwa.

Ukuqonda Inkqubo Elindelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo ngumyalelo womgaqo-siseko osekelwe kwiMimiselo-nkqubo yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine, ethintela urhulumente ukuba angamhluthi nabani na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho. Lo mgaqo usebenza ngeemfundiso ezimbini ezahlukileyo kodwa ezinxulumeneyo: inkqubo efunekayo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkcazelo ifuna ukuba urhulumente alandele iinkqubo zobulungisa phambi kokuba asuse izilangazelelo ezisisiseko zomntu. Kufuna isaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa ngexesha elinentsingiselo nangentsingiselo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. kwi . IQumrhu eliPhakamileyo kwi-Matayov. I-Eldridge[ yaseka uvavanyo olulungeleleneyo olulinganisa umdla womntu ochaphazelekayo, umngcipheko wokuncitshiswa kwempazamo phantsi kwenkqubo ekhoyo, kwaye umdla karhulumente kwimpumelelo yolawulo. Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba umfundi umgangatho okhutshwayo phambi kokuba agxothwe esikolweni sikawonke wonke, umphula-ntlalo ulahlekelwa ziinzuzo, okanye umenzi-parale ufumana kwakhona intelekele elungileyo. Ingqiqo epheleleyo isebenza ngokulinganayo yonke ingqiqo yomthetho.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo engundoqo esisiseko ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ziziphi iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo. La malungelo aquka umtshato, ukuzala, ukuzala komntwana, kunye nokuzilawula komzimba. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Griswold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [65]] [65]) yamkela ilungelo elingokomgaqo-siseko lokufumana imfihlo, kamva ekwaba yinkqubo edityanisiweyo Roev. Wadev [773]] [7773])] kunye [FLT:] OFLT] . Holtm /FLDLD (2020). SubticPreavet translatemsting translatedktivey

Imvelaphi Yocalucalulo

Umthetho wocalucalulo uthetha ngokuphathwa okungekho mthethweni okusekelwe ekungenelweni kwamalungu eklasini ekhuselweyo. Imimiselo yomanyano enjengeSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, amaMelika anoMthetho (ADA), i-Dasting Cantion in Age Act (ADEA), kunye neSivumelo-Mthethweni seFair Howards sokwalela ucalucalucalulo emsebenzini, kwizindlu, imfundo, kunye nendawo yokuhlala kawonke-wonke.

  • Unyango oludityanisiweyo: Ucalulo lwamatyala apho umntu ephathwa kakuhle kancinci ngenxa yophawu olukhuselweyo. Umzekelo, ungavumi ukuqesha umfaki-sicelo ofanelekileyo ngenxa yohlanga lwabo.
  • [[NTLT: 0] Isiphumo esingqubanayo: i-Pilogs okanye uqheliso olubonakala lungathabathi cala kodwa ngokungenakulinganiswa lwenzakalisa iqela elikhuselweyo, ngaphandle kolungiso olwaneleyo lweshishini. Lumiselwe kwi Griggs v. Ukuphatha koMkhosi. (1971], iziphumo ezidityanisiweyo azifuni bungqina benjongo yokukhupha.
  • Ihambo yokungahlawulwa esekelwe kuphawu olukhuselweyo olunzima okanye olusasazekileyo ludala umsebenzi wobutshaba okanye ukusingqongileyo kwemfundo.
  • Ubalo: ukusohlwaya umntu ngenxa yocalulo oluchasayo okanye ukuba nenxaxheba kwinkqubo yocalulo.

Iiklasi ezikhuselweyo ziye zakhula ngokuhamba kwexesha ngomthetho nangenkcazelo egwebayo. Ngoku umthetho weSizwe uquka uhlanga, ibala, unqulo, isini (kuquka ukukhulelwa, indlela esiziintlobano zesini, kunye nokuzichaza ngokwesini), imvelaphi yesizwe, iminyaka engama-40 nangaphezulu), ukukhubazeka, kunye nenkcazelo yemfuza. Amanye amaphondo akhusela ngakumbi imeko yomtshato, amagqala, kwanendlela yesondo kwanalapho umthetho karhulumente ungachananga.

Inkqubela kunye nocalucalulo: Isakhelo soMthetho

Ukusetyenziswa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nomthetho wocalucalulo kubonakala kakhulu xa abantu besithi bahluthwe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngendlela engeyiyo nje kuphela eyona nto iphosakeleyo kodwa engcoliswe lucalulo. Iimeko eziliqela eziphawula iziganeko ezibonisa oku.

Oonobumba Abaphambili

  • [FLT][FULT]n v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Inkundla ePhakamileyo yathi izikolo zikawonke wonke ezicalulwe ngokweentlobo zobuhlanga zaphula uKhuselo lwe-Claus elinganayo loMphetho weshumi elinesine. Ngelinye ixesha iprojekthi efunekayo, Brown waqinisekisa ukuba isenzo sombuso wediski yolwaphulo-mthetho asinakuthethelelwa ngako naluphi na umlinganiselo we-proccedial. Isigqibo sagxininisa ukuba amalungelo angaphantsi kwemiqathango anokuwahlula umthetho.
  • ROE v. Inkundla ifumana ilungelo lokuqhomfa kwinkqubo efunekayo kusese sesebusweni. Le meko ibonisa indlela ekufuneka ngayo ukukhusela ukuqhamisa kwimiqathango yombuso echaphazela amabhinqa.
  • Jahington v. Davis (76) iNkundla yagqiba ukuba umthetho okanye inkqubo enempembelelo elinganayo yobuhlanga ayilwaphuli ukhuseleko olulinganayo luka Claus olungekhoyo lwenjongo yokukhupha umthetho. Esi sigqibo sidala umvalo ophezulu wezinto ezicalucalucalulo, ngokufuthi sinyanzelisa ii-langteo kuxhomekeko lwenkcazelo ezichaphazelekayo endaweni ye-. Inkqubo efanelekileyo ibonakala xa abamangalelwa bephikisa ukuba balandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo, nokokuba iziphumo zingalunganga.
  • Batson v. Kentucky (1986) iNkundla yathi ukusetyenziswa komtshutshisi kwemingeni yokukhulula isalatha tyala esisekelwe kuhlanga lungangqubani noKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus. Le meko iqhina lidibanisa inkqubo efunekayo kukhetho lwejaji kumthetho ochasene nomahluko, ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukwenziwa kwejaji ayidyojwa yi-mkhethe.
  • Isinyuko v. Liberty Mutunity [2003] Isigqibo senkundla esisezantsi esibonisa indlela inkqubo efunekayo ekuchongweni kolawulo enokuthi ithotywe xa abenzi besigqibo bebonisa ukungacalucalucalulo okucacileyo. Ityala libandakanya ityala lesiphene apho umphathi ovayo ebeneentambo ezifihliweyo kumqeshi.

Ezi meko zityhila uxinezeleko olusembindini: imigaqo efunekayo elungileyo, ngelixesha umthetho ochasene nolwahlulo ujolise kwiziphumo ezincinci eziphelisa ukungalingani. Ngamanye amaxesha ezi zinto zimbini ziyavumelana, kodwa imigaqo yemiqathango ingagquma okanye iqhubele phambili ucalucalulo.

Imisebenzi Yesakhelo sesiseko

IKhomishini iye yamisela imimiselo emininzi edibanisa izityholo ezifanelekileyo ezibandakanya ukukhuselwa kwenkqubo echasene nokungavumelani. Umzekelo, isiHloko VI soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 salela ukuba kubekho ucalucalulo ngabamkeli bemali karhulumente kwaye ifuna amaqumrhu amisele iinkqubo zokuphanda izikhalazo. I-Uncimente Ecometic Obbec imisela izityholo zokucalucalucalucalulo ngokuhambelana nenkqubo yolawulo equka ukuqaphela, ukuphengulula, nokufumana ithuba lokufumana i-astruption. Ukuba i-EOC ifumana unobangela ofanelekileyo, kodwa iqela eliphetheyo likwagcina ilungelo lokufaka ityala. Esi sakhiwo sobugciso sicetyo sicelwe ngokulungele ukuqhuba inkqubela ngobulungisa, ukanti abagxeki bebanga ixesha elide kunye nempahla abathi befuna ukuwamkela amalungelo abo amaninzi.

Uxakeko lwamaqela eenjongo zomda

Ukudibana kweenkqubo ezifanelekileyo nocalucalulo kuneziphumo ezinzulu kuluntu oluphantsi, kuquka abantu abambalwa, amabhinqa, abantu abaneziphene, nabantu abafumana imali encinane. Kuvela iziphumo eziphambili:

Ukufikelela Kokusesikweni

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkcazelo iqinisekisa kuphela ukuba umntu ngamnye unokufikelela ngokunentsingiselo kwinkqubo. Ucalucalulo lubangela imiqobo: ubuncwane bemali obusikelwe umda, ukunqongophala komelo olusemthethweni, imiqobo yolwimi, kunye noloyiko lokuziphindezelela. Uphando lubonisa ukuba i-se lisignitants/abo bazimelayo ngokungaphezulu kakhulu kulawulo kunye nenkundla. Xa umqeshwa ophantsi egxothiweyo egxothwa ngenxa yezizathu zokukhupha umthetho, ilungelo lokuphulaphula liyaphelelwa. INhlangano ye-American Bar icele uncedo olusemthethweni nolwenziwe lula, kodwa imali ihlala ingenamali.

Imigibe Eqhelekileyo

Eminye imithetho yocalucalulo lwemisebenzi imisela imithetho engqongqo enokuthi ixhaphaze abantu abangalumkanga. Umzekelo, iSihlomelo VII sifuna ukubekwa ityala localulo ukuze lifakwe kwi-EEOC ngeentsuku ezili-180 zesenzo esityholwayo (ientsuku ezingama-300 kumaphondo akwizibonelelo ezifanelekileyo). Le festile emfutshane, idityaniswe nemfuneko yokuyekelela kwiingcali zolawulo, ingakwazi ukumelana neemeko ezincomekayo. Abachaphazelekayo abaphoswe kukungatshatiswa ngemini enye. Abangenwayo ngemini enye bathintelwa ekukhonzweni. Ngoxa le mithetho isebenza usukelo olusemthethweni olusemthethweni lungabangela umonakalo ngokungenalusibo unyango olukhawulezileyo, bangaba luncedo kwabo bafumana amaqela afana nabo abajongene nekhethelo.

Inkqubo yocalulo kunye nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Xa ucalucalulo luqaliswe kwiinkqubo zeziko, kwanezigqibo ezigqibeleleyo zinokuqhubekisela phambili ukungalingani. Umzekelo, inkqubo yamapolisa yangaphakathi yoqeqesho ingalandela zonke iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zenkqubo //notice, ukuva, isibheno, ukubhena/ukubhena, kodwa ukuba imilinganiselo esisiseko yokuziphatha isetyenziswa ngokwahlukileyo kubaphathi beentlanga ezahlukeneyo, inkqubo iseneziphumo ezichaphazelekayo. Iinkundla zizama ukusingatha iziphumo ezinjalo zenkqubo kuba imigaqo ecwangcisiweyo ngenxa yokuba inkqubela phambili yokuhlola ithetha ngetyala ngalinye kunokuba imizekelo ye-aggreate. Inkundla ePhakamileyo isetyenziswe ngokwahlukileyo kubaphathi beentlanga ezahlukeneyo, [[FTLT:] Mckeys v.[FLD:1] [1987]) ayivumi ukuphelisa iziphumo zokufa ezisekelwe kwi-sclist-ortmentalbans, imele ingqine ukuba ivavane ngokufanelekileyo.

Iingxaki Ekunyanzelweni

Phezu kwako nje ukusetyenziswa kwamalungelo afanelekileyo asemthethweni, ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo afanelekileyo kwiimeko zocalucalulo kujongene nemiqobo emikhulu.

IMigaqo yeMigaqo-nkqubo

Ucalucalulo olupheleleyo phakathi kwabagwebi namaqumrhu eejaji lungagqwetha ukusebenza kwenkqubo efunekayo. Uphando lubonisa ukuba abagwebi abanakuthintelwa ekuzifihleni ngokungekho mthethweni malunga nohlanga, ubufana, kunye nemeko yentlalo-ntle yentlalo. Kumatyala ocalucalulo, abagwebi basenokukholelwa ukuba imigaqo efanelekileyo ilandelwa ukuba ummangalelwa lilungiselelo elimiselwe kakuhle okanye ukuba ummangalelwa ungoweqela eliqhelekileyo. INkundla yeSipreme iyavuma ukuba ikhethe elipheleleyo linokungqubana nelungelo kwinkundla engakhethi buso, kodwa lingqina ukuba likho nzima. Amanye amathe akalwangaqinisekanga.

Umahluko kavimba

Ucalucalulo lubiza imali eninzi. /Ii-asethi ezininzi ezikhusela amaqumrhu amakhulu okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente `anokufikelela kumagqwetha, amangqina oochwepheshe, kunye namangqina. Abachaphazeli, ingakumbi abantu ngabanye, basoloko bengenabo oovimba abalinganayo. Ukufumaneka kweendleko zokongamela kunceda, kodwa amagqwetha amaninzi afumana izigqibo zekhusi ngocoselelo, ashiya abafuni bungqina obubuthathaka okanye umonakalo wemali ophantsi ngaphandle kokumele. [[FLT: 0] EOC] Amanani onyaka ngamnye [[ abonisa ukuba izityholo zamaqela azimeleyo athe kratya, kodwa ipesenti ephuma kwizigqibo ezifanelekileyo iye yancipha, ngokwenxalenye ngenxa yemali efunyenweyo.

Ukuxhathisa kweziko

Amanye amaziko axhathisa ukusetyenziswa kwemigaqo ekhuthaza ukukhutshwa kwemithetho kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Umzekelo, izikolo zikawonke-wonke zingalibazisela ukuhlaziya iinkqubo zoqeqesho ngaphandle kobungqina bokwahluka kobuhlanga ekususweni kwemiqamelo. Abaqeshi bangaqhubeka besebenzisa uqheliselo lokuqesha oluvelisa iziphumo ezingundoqo zokusasaza umlomo ngenxa yokuba ziluncedo okanye ziphumeza iziphumo zexabiso. Ukuxhathisa oku kusoloko kufuna ukusetyenziswa okuqhubekayo, isenzo somthetho, okanye uxinzelelo lukawonke-wonke-wonke. [[FLT: 0] Amalungelo e-Civil Icandelo elingundoqo leSebe leJajinity[[ lidlala indima ephambili, kodwa ukutshintsha kwalo lokugcinwa kolawulo ngalunye, ukwenza ulungiso lwemithetho.

Ingxoxo echaphazelayo

Ucelomngeni olungundoqo lukwinjongo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo efuna ucalucalulo lomgaqo-siseko. Njengoko kuphawulwe kwi Sharhington v. Davis, umchasi-mdla kufuneka abonise ukuba urhulumente ozimisele ukuchonga, hayi nje ukuba inkqubo yaba nesiphumo socalulo. Lo mgangatho kunzima kakhulu ukudibana ngenxa yokuba injongo inqabile ukuchazwa ngaphezulu. Abaphengululi abaninzi baphikisa ukuba umgaqo ofanelekileyo wokuthintela inyathelo likarhulumente elinochuku kufuneka unyuse imigaqo evelisa iziphumo ezizizothelekelelo, ezingalinganiyo, kwaye ngaphandle kokuqinisekiswa kokucalula. Noko ke, iNkundla isoloko ingavumi ukwandisa inkqubo ephantsi okanye ukukhusela okufanelekileyo, ishiya iziphumo eziphambili zenkqubo ezilawulayo. Kodwa ityala le nkqubo yokuhlasela i-Scoactive njengeeget transted transte transtess. Kodwa ityala ityala lomthetho wokuvavanyaniswa kwemithetho karhulumente.

Iimbambano Ezimandundu Neendlela Eziza Kulandelwa

Ukudibana kwenkqubo efunekayo kunye nocalucalulo kuyaqhubeka kuguquka ngenkqubela-phambili entsha engokwasemthethweni kunye neenguqu zentlalo. Ubugcisa bunika imingeni emitsha: ukwenza izigqibo ze-algorithmethime ekuqesheni, ekuqesheni, ekuhlaliseni izindlu, nakubulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho bungabhebhetheza ucalucalulo ngexa kuvela kobundilele. Abameli benkqubo elindelekileyo babiza ukuba kubekho ukukhanya nelungelo lokukhuphisana ngezigqibo ezizenzekelayo, kodwa iinkundla ziqala kuphela ukucombulula le ngxaki. Ngokufanayo, iingxoxo eziqhubekayo ngokusetyenziswa kwemithetho e-transgender, kunye namalungelo okuvocation zonke zibandakanya imibuzo esisiseko malunga nokokuba ziqukelwe yimigaqo ephantsi, nokuba ngaba ukulingana okungalawulekiyo kunokuzibandakanya nokulunga kobulungisa.

“ Inkqubo elindelekileyo isinika imigaqo, kodwa hayi ukulingana. Ukuze sifikelele ukulingana, maxa wambi kufuneka sijonge ngaphaya kwemigaqo size sibuze ukuba ngubani oviweyo nothuliswayo.” — Iphazanyiswe kwintetho yeJaji uThurfall Marshall.

Olunye ulwalathiso oluthembisayo kukusetyenziswa okunyuliweyo kwe- “procedtural comment commentation" kumaziko olawulo neenkundla. Ezi zicwangciso zigxininisa ubundilele, intlonelo, ukunyaniseka, nelizwi kwinkundla ezisemthethweni. Uphando lucebisa ukuba xa abantu beqonda ukuba iinkqubo zilungile /ayinasiphelo sesiphumo, badla ngokuthobela umthetho kunye namaziko okuthembeka. Kumaqela ajongene nokungabikho kokusesikweni ngokwembali, okusesikweni okusekelwe kwisithethe kusenokuba sisixhobo esinamandla sokuvala umsantsa phakathi kwenkqubo efanelekileyo nemilinganiselo echasene nolwaphulo-mthetho.

Isiphelo

Ukudibana kwenkqubo efunekayo kunye nocalucalulo kutyhila amandla nobuthathaka benkqubo yomthetho waseMerika. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo inika ukhuselo oluqinileyo lwezikhuselo, ukunyanzelisa izithuba, ukwahlulwa kwezibonelelo, kunye neenkcazelo zomthetho zidla ngokushiya abantu bengenayo imigaqo esebenzayo ngaphandle koncedo olusebenzayo. Isithembiso senkqubo efunekayo . Ukufumana ukuphathwa ngokufanelekileyo phambi komthetho.