Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli LoMthetho Wesithandathu Wokuhlaziywa: Ukujamelana Neengxaki Ukutyhubela Iinkulungwane

Ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli bomntu ngokwalo asilololwezi phulo langoku; ligumbi lembombo le-Anglo-American jurisprance elandulela iSinyuso soMphetho-mva ngokwalo. Ililungelo lokuchasa u-Xanduva lo-1991, i-Claus eqinisekisa ukuba i-&lquo; kuzo zonke izityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho, abamangalelwayo baza kunandipha i-&helpip; ukujamelana namangqina nxamnye naye. i-” esi sivakalisi sibonakala silula sivelisa iinkulungwane zeligi, ingxoxo, inkcaciso, kunye ne-enzamendo ezibonisayo. Ukusuka kwixesha lokuqalisa kwe-&rcquo; idabiso ngokuchasene nemfiliba lokuzinza kwe-mgamgamskrite yamanani amanani amanani angaphandle, iingxelo zevidiyo, iingxelo ze-Americ, iingxelo zetyala ze-Agest.

Imvelaphi Yempikiswano KaClaus: Ukusuka KwiiNkundla Zokuncina Amakholwa zamaNgesi Ukuya KwiBhili Yamalungelo

Iimvelaphi zembali zeBhathimandla u-Claus ulele ekusetyenzisweni kakubi kwenkqubo yomthetho yamaNgesi amaMelika awajamelana nayo ngokwawo. Ngenkulungwane ye16 neye-17, iinkundla zamaNgesi zavumela ukusetyenziswa kwe-exxte affidavits[ kunye nezimvo ezichaseneyo nabamangalelwayo, ngokufuthi ngaphandle kwamathuba okumangalelwa ukuba banqamleze amangqina. Ukuvavanywa okunezono okudume kakubi kukaSir Walter Raleigh ngo-103, apho wagwetywa kakhulu kwisivumelwano esibhaliweyo se-co-pirdem esikroliweyo esibonakala enkundleni, waba sisikhalo esikhuthaza abaququzeli beenko. I-Framesm yabe yarhoxinene kule mbali, kunye nongquzulwano ye-Celascss produkt , kwayilwe ukunqanda ukuphinda kuviswe oko kusenziwa ngomthetho onjalo ngowe nokwenziwa ngowe .

Ngexesha lokuqulunqwa kweBhili yamaLungelo, uJames Madison waqonda ukuba ummangalelwa u’ ubuchule bokujamelana nabamangaleli bakhe wafeza iinjongo ezininzi: waqinisekisa ukuthembeka kobungqina ngokubuthobela ekuxhotyisweni kweminqamlezo, wanyanzelisa amangqina ukuba anikele ubungqina phantsi kwesisongelo sobugwebo, kwaye wavumela abagwebi ukuba baphawule ukuphathwa kakuhle kobungqina. Ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwakusekelwe kwi “ ukhetho oluqhelekileyo lomthetho wobungqina obuphilayo, i” njengoko iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaphawula kamva. Lo mongo wembali ugxeke: uClaus wayengenguye nje umgangatho olungileyo kodwa wayeyigosa urhulumente owenziwe ngokuphandle.

Iingcaciso zokuqala ze-Ofisi: Iminyaka yokuLungiselela (1791-1965)

Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane emva kokusetyenziswa kwendlela yokusebenza, iBhunga lika-Claus lafumana ingqwalasela yeNkundla ePhakamileyo elinganiselweyo. INkundla &squo; izigqibo zangaphambili zasebenzisa kakhulu umlinganiselo oqinileyo, wobuso obujongeka-kumgangatho. . [INkundla] i-Matox v. United States[FLT][FLT] [185] [185] [185] [iNkakhulu] [iNku, iNkungqina ukuba ilungelo lokuxambulisana alizukunokulahlwa ngokulula, kodwa kwakhona laqonda ukuba uClausle wayengagqibekanga. Inkundla yathetha, i “ Injongo engundoqo yenkqubo [i-Clausclascle; ingumthetho oqhelekileyo othe wagunyaziswa phantsi kwenxalenye ye-affdius; ukusetyenziswa ngokuchasene novavanyo lobuqu sobuqu sobuqu somntu, inguldek) inguquo; isalaldio; isala uvulo olu

Kuyo yonke inkulungwane yama-20, iinkundla ezisezantsi zalwa noxinzeleleko phakathi kwe Clause kunye nolwandiso lweqela elikhulayo lovavava. Indlela jikelele yayikukujonga amalungelo ongquzulwano njenganelisekileyo ukuba ubungqina buye bangena kumphandle wevava, i” uvavanyo oluza kucocwa ekugqibeleni lunyuswe kwaye lunyuswe.

IWaterdock: isalathisi v. Texas (1965) kunye noHlahlelo

Incam enzima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yajika yafika [FLT] Pointer v. Texas (65). Kulo mzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iSithandathu Isimemezelo &ctrsquo; iNkqulu soMphetho ka-Claus yenziwa ukuba u-Faced Claus usebenziseka kumazwe ngako [[FLT:]] Fitenth Dementethment [[FLT] [[FLT] Fittenst] &ct:o; 'Msebenzi woMsebenzi wolawulo we- Clausquo; Claus Clausque; ne- processssssssssssssss procept, umphengululi wocard, umphengululi , uGenel uG.

IFrames Yamathub: Ukusuka eOhio v. Roberts ukuya eCrawford v. Washington

Kwiminyaka engamashumi emva kwesalathisi, imigangatho yolawulo lohlalutyo lwemida yenkxwaleko yamiselwa [FLT]] Ohio v. Roberts (1980). Phantsi koRoberts, ubungqina bendlebe bebubonakala bungaqondakali ukuba buwe phakathi kwe “ ngokuqinileyo bunemiva enxaxhileyo echaphazelekayo ye ” okanye ivethe i “ isiqinisekiso sobunyaniso. ” Olu vavanyo luthelekelelo lwetyala lwanika abagwebi ubuchule obuninzi kwaye lwakhokelela kwiziphumo ezingangqinelani. Abagxeki bephikisa ukuba abatshutshisi bomsebenzi bavumele ukuba bazise amava ngaphandle kwesizathu sovavanyo kuvavaniso kunqamlezo.

Crawford v. Washington (2004): A Paradigm Shift

. Ityala elibandakanya uMichael Crawford v. Washington. [FLT] , iNkundla Ephakamileyo yamisa isakhiwo sikaRoberts yaza yabuyisela ingcaciso engakumbi yeBhali ye-Claus. Ityala elibandakanya uMichael Crawford, owamangalelwa ngokuhlasela nokuzama ukubulala. Ngexesha lokuvavanya kwakhe, ingcaphulo yadlala ikhase ngxelo yekhasethi yomfazi wakhe, uSylvia, eyanikwa amapolisa ngexesha lokuncinwa. Ngenxa yelungelo lobugratyaniso, uSylvia akangqinelanga bungqina, kodwa urhulumente wazisangagunyaziswanga mvume wokuchasa. Inkundla yafumana ingxelo ethembekileyo phantsi kwe-Ost Roberts, neNkurst Claviso. Inkundla yokungqinelana kwemi, i-T.

Ukubhalela abaninzi, uMahluleli Scalia walwamkela uvavanyo lobunyani lukaRoberts, echaza ukuba i “ i-Clausquo; into eyintloko yi-lisiqinisekiso sokuba luvava, i-” kwaye ukunyaniseka yi- &lquo; ingqiqo, ukuba ayizange inikezele ngokupheleleyo. i-&rdequo; isigqibo seCrawford safuna ukuba iinkundla zigxininise ukuba intetho yi- “ i-slityon ” kwindalo. Ukuba ibiyi--extificial ” indlela yokuyivuma ngaphandle kwedecrate ebonakala enkundleni yenkundla ukuba ubungqina babungekho kwaye umkhokeli ube nethuba elingaphambili lokunqamleza. Oku kumthetho oqaqambileyo kurhoxinzelelwe phantsi komthetho ocacileyo. Ukuchana kweNkume; ukuvelisa iNkuchaza iNkundla yeNtkspremie; kodwa phambi kokuba kuthethwe phambi kovavanyo, isalathi, isalathi, isalathi yetyala, isalathi, isalathi, isalathi,

Ingxelo zeNkcubeko yePhondo

Iziphumo zikaCrawford zadala ushishino oluncinci lokuzimela ngaphezu koko kuyila i “ irejistal ” ingxelo. Inkundla yathetha ngalo mbuzo kwiimeko ezininzi ezilandelayo:

  • [[NTLOBO:0] Davis v. Washington (2006: INkundla yahlula phakathi kwezimvo ezenziwe ngexesha loncinwa lwamapolisa ezingqina (inyani,, ngokuyintloko ukuseka iziganeko zexesha elidlulileyo zokumangalelwa) kunye nezingathanga mdlalo-mdla (umzekelo, zenzelwe ukubangela amapolisa ahlangabezane noxakeka oluqhubekayo). Xa ixhoba elibizwa ngokuba ngu-911 kwaye lixelelwe ukuba u-Davis wayehlasela, amazwi akhe ayebanjiwe ukuba angaqwalaseli kuba injongo yokuqala yayikukugqiba ngexakeka okuqhubekayo. Ngokungafaniyo, iingxelo ezinikwe amapolisa emva kokucotha kwemeko ezichazwe ngaphambili.
  • [FLT] Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts [2009]] INkundla yathi ityala limele ukuba iingxelo zethala leencwadi ezichaza icocaine njengencorcratic zingxelo zesiqinisekiso. Abahlalutyi abalungiselela iingxelo kufuneka bangqine ukuvavanywa ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa ube nethuba langaphambili lokunqumla ii-exakene. Le sigqibo savusa impikiswano ngomthwalo kwii-labcabster kunye nemfuneko yobungqina obuphilayo obuvela kwizicatshulwayo ze-lab.
  • ukuvavanya utywala. I-Bulling v. i-New Mexico (2011) (2011) iNkundla yandisa uMeldendez-Diaz, ibambe ukuba xa umhloli we-ongens uchaza iziphumo zovavanyo lwegazi lotywala, umtshutshisi akanakuyifaka endaweni yenye ingqwala-ngqwalasela ukuba ngaba ingcali yokwenene eyalenza uvavanyo ayingqinisi, ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa ube nethuba langaphambili lokunqamleza i-equmrhu.
  • Palliams v. Illinois (202): Inkundla echaphazelekayo ayizange inikeze uluvo oluninzi lokuba iingxelo zengcali ye-labtri zingqina. Isigqibo esishiyekileyo kwi-DNA singqina. Uluvo oluninzi, kuMphathi-Atori-Alto, safumana ukuba iingxelo ezinjalo zingaziswa njengesiseko sengcaciso yonochazi &squo; uluvo, nokokuba iingxelo ezingaphantsi zinokuba zingqinelane bungqina. Esi sigqibo sishiywe phantsi kwinkundla edityaniswe kwaye sishiyelwe indawo yokhuphiso-mthetho.

Iinkcazo Nemida Yengxuba

INkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba iBhali lika-Claus, lo gama isomelele, ayingenamida. Naphantsi kwesakhelo sikaCrawford, uhlebezi oluthile olumiselwe kakuhle lusaphila kuba alugqalwa njengobungqina bendalo. Ezi ziquka:

  • [[NTL:0] Izibhengezo ezizizo: Iingxelo ezenziwe phantsi kwenkolelo yokufa okukufuphi azinakuthenjwa, nokuba zingqinelana, ngenxa yembali ye-padigree. Uninzi lweCrawford lwaphawula ngokucacileyo ukuba izibhengezo ezifayo zazingahambelani nomthetho oqhelekileyo kwaye zisenokuba ziyasinda ku-Celas.
  • Isenzo sokwenza okuphosakeleyo: Ukuba ummangalelwa ufumana intlawulo engamkelekanga yobungqina ngesenzo esiphosakeleyo ```njengesoyikiso, ukubulala, okanye ukunyanzela] ummangalelwa ulahlekelwa ngamalungelo akhe ongquzulwano. [[FLT]] Geles v. California [2008] , iNkucacisa ukuba ummangalelwa umele asebenze ngenjongo yokukhusela ubungqina; ulwaphulo-mthetho oluqhelekileyo oluphumele ngempazamo.
  • Ishishini kunye neziKhulu zoluNtu (Nontiphilia): Iingxelo zeRoutine ezigcinelwe iinjongo zolawulo, ezifana no-911 yezibizo ze-ogg okanye iifomu zokuthatha izibhedlele, zijongwa njengezingathathi zingenamdla kuba injongo yazo yokuqala ayikokuyila ubungqina bokumangalelwa. Noko ke, iingxelo ezenziwe ngqo ukwenzela ukungxengxengezwa, njengeziganeko zamapolisa, zingaba yisiqinisekiso.

Umahluko ongundoqo ushiyeka ukuba la mazwi abekwe kwimeko apho umntu osengqiqweni anokubona kusengaphambili ukusetyenziswa kwawo kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Le “ injongo engundoqo ” uvavanyo, njengoko luchazwe kwi-Davis nasemva kwamatyala, lusisilingo sohlalutyo longquzulwano lwale mihla.

Iingxaki Zanamhlanje: Ubugcisa, Ubungqina Obukude Nexesha Lokusebenzisa Amanani

Inkulungwane yama-21 ibangele ucelomngeni olungazange lubonwe kwiNkangeleko ka-Claus. Ukwanda kobungqina bemichiza. (ukusuka kugcino-lwazi lwezicell phone ukuya ku-GPS efumana iirekhodi, ii-ofisi zezentlalo-mbini, kunye nokuhlola) kunye nemibuzo entsokothileyo emalunga noko kuyila i- “ i-Auschnous ” kunye nokuba ulwazi oluquluniweyo lwe-grofektha lunokuba lunokungqina. Iinkundla ngokubanziwa komatshini-omatshini abafumana ulwazi alungqini na kuba lungangqinwabi ngenxa yokuba lunga luthetha umntu. Kodwa xa loo nkcazelo ichazwa sisiqwalathisi esingabantu (umz.DNA, umphengululi we-genetrogram), i-projective projectivessss projective (ences)

ISingqiniso seVidiyo ekude neCOVID-19

I-COVID-19 enyanzelekile ukuba ifumane ubugcisa ngokukhawuleza, kuquka ukusetyenziswa kakhulu kwe- kobungqina bevidiyo idlula kumaqonga afana noKwandisa. [[FLT]] "Amaryland v.[FLT][FLT][4] [1990] [1990] [iNkusetyenziswa kwe-FLT], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ibisele ivumile ukusetyenziswa kwendlela enye evaliweyo yoluvo olufana noluvolo oluphakathi lwabantwana ukukhusela amangqina omntwana, ukuba kuxhomekeke nje kwimeko efunekayo. Ngokunjalo, iNkundla yeNkundla ikholelwa ukuba ixakelelwa kubomi obungaphindiweyo, inyaniso igosayo, ingakhange i-ukutshona, i-ukunganye ukuchana kwe-ekho kuxhonywa yi-ok'impala yoncedo. Ngokutshonye ukuxinzeka kwe-ondo oluqhelekileyo, ngokutshonye ukusetyenziswa kobugxweyo.

Ubungqina Beforensi: Ilifa LikaWilliams

Enye yezona ndawo ziphikisanayo kukusetyenziswa kwe iingxelo zeDNA, iziphumo zetyhefu, kunye nezinye ezibangela ubungozi zolingelo lwezonyango zihlalutya ngaphandle kokubiza umhlaziyi woqobo. I-' i-Palliams v.Illinonia[ isigqibo esishiye iinkundla ezisezantsi ngaphandle kokhokelo olucacileyo. Ezinye iziphaluka--bhuthi zibambe ukuba ingxengxengxezo kufuneka ivethetheze umhlazi ncam; abanye bavumela isazi sokuchaza izinto ezikhoyo phantsi kwelabo ukuba ingxelo ngokwayo ayiveliswanga bubungqina. Oku kudala umsantsalo we &xquo; ukuba iNkuphelo yeNkupho eninzi inokuthi inikezele ukusombululo kuqikelelo lwetyala. [FT:][5][6][4] [iT] ingcala iziphumo ezithenjiso sinikezelwe ngumzekelo, ukuba ityala lobungqina obuninzi.[5] xa kuthenjiso,

Umda onqamlezayo kunye nemilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe

Iinkundla ezidityanisiweyo emhlabeni wonke zinyanzele ukuba iinkundla ziqwalasele ukuba iNqanawa ka-Claus isebenza kusini na kwiingxelo ezithatyathwe ngamagosa angaphandle okanye phantsi komthetho wasemzini. [FLT] United States v. Abu Hazza [2010] [2010], iNtente lesibini ibambelele kwiNqaqo ePhakathiweyo ibambelele kwiinjongo zomcimbi welizwe ngelinye ilizwe aliyibophikisi ngokuzenzekelayo phantsi kweCrawford ukuba ityala lamanye amazwe aliqhutyelwanga ngamehlo e-U.S. ukutshutshiswa kwalo. Lo mmandla uhlala ungashukumi, kwaye iinkundla ezisezantsi zisebenzisa uvavanyo oluphambili lwenjongo yovavanyo lwenjongo yamanye amazwe angaphandle. Ukuveliswa kobungqina obuvela kwimincindiso yemfazwe okanye kwii-banki ziveza iingxelo ezintsha.

Ungquzulwano LukaClaus Namalungelo Amaxhoba

Enye inkxalabo yanamhlanje ixhalabisa amalungelo amaxhoba olwaphulo-mthetho. Xa umntwana okanye umntu omdala obuthathaka ekhotyokiswa ngurhulumente kunye namaxhoba karhulumente i’ imithetho yamalungelo. IiMbangiswa zeCrime ’ amalungelo oMthetho (CVRA) ka-2004 kunye nemithetho-siseko yombuso emininzi inika amaxhoba ilungelo lokubakho ekuvavanyweni nasekuvinyweni. Xa umntwana okanye umntu omdala obuthathaka engoyena ulixhoba, iinkundla kufuneka zilinganisele i-’ inkxwabangx ngokuchasa ngokuchasa ixhoba i’ inzala yokuphepha ungquzuzwano. u-Maryland. [[FLTLT] V. uhlala ekhokelwa ngoko kumiselwe ngamangqina anjalo, kodwa uthe wandiswe kumaxhoba obuchule obungqongqo okanye angokweemvakalelo.

Ulwalathiso Lwexesha Elizayo: Inkcaso KaClaus Ngenkulungwane Ye - 21

Njengoko ubugcisa buqhubeka budlula imfundiso esemthethweni, ungquzulwano lweSithandathu lweMbetho ’ luza kujongana novavanyo olutsha. ubuchule obuzenzekelayo sele busetyenziswa ukuvelisa iingxelo, ukuhlalutya, kwaye kwada kwayila ubungqina obunzulu. Ngubani i &lquo; ingqina lokunika ubungqina &squo; i-&rdo; xa inkqubo ye-Alpha ivelisa amazwi asetyenziswa kamva ngokuchasene nommangalelwa? Inkundla iyakufuna ukugqiba ukuba iintetho ezinzulu zomatshini azinanto zimele ukungqinela kuba zingenazo izithethi ezisebenza ngemisebe, kodwa iziphelo ezizo ezizonwa zisetyenziswa ngabantu zisebenzisa izixhobo ze-AIALD ziza kuwa phantsi kwe-Crawford &quo; ambit.

Unyuko lwenyaniso yento [[FLT: 0] luphakamisa imibuzo. Xa ikhamera yequmrhu lamapolisa ithatha i-’ iingxelo kumboniso wolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwe- i-methon yekhamera ye-[FLT] yomzimba-omen's' ye-menu ye-menu ye-'points'. Xa ikhamera yeqela yamapolisa ithatha i-’ izichaziso ezikhoyo, yilento eqinisekisiweyo? Ngaphantsi komzekelo wangoku, ukuba le ngxelo yenziwa ukuphendula umphathi we-’ imibuzo ngexesha likaxakeka eliqhubekayo, isenokungathathi nxaxheba. Kodwa ukuba ikhamera ibamba amangqina &rcos; ii-gloptions ezizenzekelayoyo, azikhange zisebenzise ingqwalaselo esinyaminyanze. Inkundla ephakamileyo asikhange sisetyenziswe ngobungqina obuninzi kodwa i-o bungqina obuqhelekileyo, kodwa uhlalutyiso sino-o.

Ekugqibeleni, indlela yolwazi lwezobuzwe [[FLT: 0] exhaswe nguJaji Scalia eCrawford iyaqhubeka ilawula iCourt’ indlela yokusondela, kodwa ikamva layo aliqinisekanga njengoko abagwebi abatsha besiza kwibheri. Abanye abaphengululi baxhasa indlela ethambileyo, engqineke ithembekile enokuthi ivumele iinkundla zivume iiheader ezithembekileyo kwanangaphandle kokuba kunqamlezekile. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi kuphela utoliko olungqongqo, olusisiseko lukhusela abamangalelwa kwiphondo. Ukulungelelaniso lwezopolitiko kunye noluvo lweNkulwano lweNkulwano luzakwenza indlela enokuthi iphithelekele u-Clas Claus emashumi eminyaka ezayo.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Eliphilayo Lokuchaswa

Indaleko yamalungelo okujamelana namangqina libali lokuzimela ngokusekelwe kumgaqo ongaphelelwayo: ummangalelwa kufuneka abe nethuba elifanelekileyo lokuvavanya urhulumente i’ lingqina. Ukusuka kwiSchrent Chamber ukuya kwinkundla yanamhlanje yaseMelika, ukusuka kwizixhobo ezibhalwe ngesandla ukuya kwiingxelo zeDNA, iBhali lika-Claus e lingqiniwe njengesikhuselo esiqinileyo senkululeko. Ayifuni nje kuphela ithuba lokubakho, kodwa ifuna ithuba elingaphantsi kwembali lokumangalelwa ukuba ivavanyeze ubungqina bazo. Njengoko ubugcisa, ibutho labantu, kunye nobume bolwaphulo-mthetho buqhubeka buguqula iDNA, inkundla kufuneka iqiniseke ukuba inkcaso elungileyo yokulwa ayipheliswa okanye impumelelo. Isifundo esikhulu sika-Clausscquos; yimbali efuna ukubekwa kwe-procscscs-ecul azimele, kunye nesifundo sobugciso sithetha ukuba umntu ohlala eqeshisiwe kwiminyaka engama-30 eyadlulayo.

ukuqhubekeka kokufunda, bona umbhalo opheleleyo we uNombolo kuCornell LII , iNkundla ePhakamileyo &squo; uluvo ku Cawford v. Washington [2004] [2004], kunye ne American Bar Association Actrisquo ekwinkcaso kunye nobungqina bamanani[FLT:].[FLT:]