IsiHlaliso seSithandathu soMgaqo-siseko weUnited States siqinisekisa ilungelo lommangalelwa lokucebisa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Umbhalo ulula: “Kuzo zonke iinkundla zamatyala, ummangalelwa uza kunandipha ilungelo ... ukuba neNcedo yeSiluleko sokukhusela.. Kwaye kwimbali emininzi yaseMerika esetyenziswa kuphela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Yathatha uthotho lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuze yandise [[FLT: 0] isorporate[ [ukuthi t)] ngokuchasa kakuhle amagunya asemthethweni ngeSindululo se-14th Remplitempli. Le nkqubo yokuquququzelelana yaguqula inkqubo yezobulungisa yaseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuba wonke umntu ojongenelo lwenkululeko, kungakhathaliseki ukuba kuliphi nalelo lwemeko abazama ngalo, igqwethawe-gqeqesi babo.

Uhambo olusuka kwisiqinisekiso sorhulumente esisuka kwilungelo lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe lwalungakhawulezi okanye lungangeni mithetho. Lwalubandakanya utshintsho olusisiseko kwindlela iNkundla eyayiluqonda ngayo ulwalamano phakathi kweBhili yamaLungelo namaphondo, kwaye kwakufuneka ichazwe ngenkalipho ngamagqwetha nabamangalelwa ababegxininisa ukuba okusesikweni akunakuba yimfama ukuba elinye iqela lalinokumelana namandla apheleleyo karhulumente. Ukuqonda ukuqulunqena kweSihluzo seSithandathu ekunene ekululekweni kufuna ukuvavanywa kwemfundiso esemthethweni yokuqululwe, imiba enzima eyayiyiqhubela phambili, kunye nemiphumo eluncedo yenkqubo yokugweba yolwaphulo-mthetho namhlanje.

Imfundiso Yokuthethelela: Ukwenza iBhili yamaLungelo

IBhili yamaLungelo .* Intethelelo yokuqala elishumi kuMgaqo-siseko `Iziphendulo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo' zaye zijoliswe ekuthinteleni urhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Xa umGaqo-siseko wagunyaziswa, amazwe amaninzi anyanzelisa uxwebhu lwamalungelo njengendlela yokuhlola igunya elitsha lesizwe, kodwa ayengaluboni ukhuseleko njengolubopheleleyo kurhulumente. Le mbono yaqinisekiswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Barron v. Baltimoremore[ [1833], eyayikholelwa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayizange isebenze kumazwe.

ISinyuso seshumi elinesine, esagunyaziswa ngo1868, saguqula umgaqo-siseko wemeko. I-Active Process Claus yayo ichaza ukuba akukho rhulumente “oya kunyanzelisa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Kuludwe lwamatyala aqala ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinethoba, iNkundla yaqalisa ukuchaza“ukuqulunqa okungagqibeleliyo” njengokuquluqela amanye amalungiselelo eBhilini lamaLungelo. Inkundla ayizange ifake naliphi na icala kumazwe. Endaweni yoko, yamkela ityala-ngendlela eyaziwayo njenge [[FLT:] [FLD] [FLD1].] ivavanyanisa ukuba umgaqo olungileyo “umgaqo wokusesikweni kunye nenkululeko ye-Melikan" ayizange ifakelele kwiNkquluendo yenkululeko.

Ilungelo lokucebisa lalingumntu ophambili ekungeneleni. Akukho lungelo elibonakala libaluleke kakhulu kwityala elifanelekileyo kunamandla okukhusela umntu kwigqwetha. Kodwa kangangamashumi eminyaka iNkundla yawuchasa umthetho wengubo, ishiya umbandela wesiluleko esilungiselelwe ngurhulumente kwingqiqo yamazwe.

Udideko: Ilungelo lokucebisa phambi kokuHlanganisa

Phambi kokuba uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lufakwe, ilungelo lokucebisa kwiinkundla zelizwe lahluka-hlukene ngokungalawulekiyo. Amanye amazwana anika isiluleko esimiselweyo kuzo zonke iityala zetyala; amanye awazange. INkundla Ephakamileyo yayiliqaphele ilungelo kwiinkundla zesizwe kwi Johnson v. Zerbst [1938], ikholelwa ukuba uHlaziselo lweSithandathu lwalufuna iinkundla zikarhulumente ukumisela icebiso lazo zonke iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa enyanisweni. Kodwa eso sigqibo asizange sifake loo matyala.

INkundla yaqala yathetha ngetyala kwiinkundla zikarhulumente kwi- Powell v. Alabama (1932]). Apho, abakwishumi elivisayo abamnyama abathoba , “i-Scottsboro Boys"") bavavanywa ukudlwengulwa kwaye bagwetyelwa ukufa e-Alabama. Babengenazo izithethe ezisemthethweni de kube ekuseni kwetyala. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaziguqula iinkolelo, ibambe ukuba phantsi kwe-'I-'Standard Clauslee of the 149th Amend Amend Amendment, elo lizwe kwakufuneka linikele isiluleko kwiimeko ezimanyumnye umntu ebengakwazi ukuzikhusela. [[FLT.[FLT:]] Powell yayingumbhalo wesigqeqeshi, kodwa yayilinganiselwe: yasebenza kuphela kwiimeko ezithile kunye nakwezo.

Kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu elandelayo, iNkundla yazama ukuchaza umlinganiselo wasekunene. [[FLT: 0] Bradys v. Brady (1942), iNkundla yathi i-Century Process Clause ayikhange ifune ngokuzenzekelayo ukuba kumiselwe imithetho yokumisela abamangalelwa abagwebi abangengomthetho kwiimeko ezingaqhelekanga. Endaweni yoko, iNkundla yafaka uvavanyo “imeko ezikhethekileyo”: nokuba kutheni, ukungabikho kwesiluleko kwakuza kuphumela kwityala elingenabulungisa. Le tyala-mcimbi ngokubhekiselele ekungagunyaziswanga. Iinkundla ezisezantsi azivumelani na koko kwakusenziwa“ iimeko ezikhethekileyo, kwaye abamangalelwa abaninzi baye bavavanywa ngaphandle kwe-gqhinga.

Incopho yokuguquka: UGidiyon . Wainwright

Le mbambano yafika kwintloko kwi Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). UClarence Earl Gideon wayelihlwempu, encinane, etyholwe ngokuqhekeza kwigumbi lenqanawa eFlorida. Wacela inkundla ukuba imisele igqwetha lakhe. Umthetho waseFlorida kuphela owanika icebiso elimiselwe amatyala emalini, ngoko isicelo sakhe sakhatywa. UGidiyon wazimela ngo-/waye wagwetyelwa ngeminyaka emihlanu entolongweni.

Esokuvalelwa entolongweni, uGidiyon warekhoda isicelo esibhalwe ngesandla kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, ephikisa ngelithi amalungelo akhe omgaqo-siseko aphulwe. INkundla yanika iCertioriari iJaji yexesha elizayo yaza yamisela uJaji Abe Fortas ukuba aphikisane ngetyala lakhe. Isiphumo yaba sisigqibo somququzeleli omnye Bratts v. Brady. IJaji Hugo Black, ibhale iNku belo iNkuchaza ukuba: [FLD:2] kwinkqubo yethu echasathu yesigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, nawuphi na umntu oye wangena eququlelweni, ongekho fanelekileyo kakhulu ukuba aqeshe ityala elilungileyo, akanakuqinisekiswa ngaphandle kokuba icebo lilungiselelwe.[FLD:3] Inkundla yeNkuphethotholo yeN, ithetha ngokufanelekileyo nge-Geneticlet, i-Grediediusting.

IGideon isoloko ichazwa njengezinye zezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezibaluleke kakhulu zenkulungwane yamashumi amabini. Yaguqula ulawulo lwezomthetho zolwaphulo-mthetho eUnited States. I-United States kwafuneka imisele iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke okanye ifumane ezinye iindlela zokunika amahlwempu amagqwetha. Kwi-Retrium, kunye negqwetha, uGidiyon wakhululwa.

Ukwandisa Amalungelo: Ngaphaya Kwawo

Ukungagqibeki nomahluko wolwaphulo-mthetho

Emva .Gideon, umbuzo olandelayo wawungukuba ilungelo lokucebisa elisetyenziswa kuphela kwiimeko zetyala. Amaphondo amaninzi akakhange anikezele amagqwetha kubamangalelwa abagwebi abangekho mthethweni kwityala eliphosakeleyo. Argusteringer v. Hamlin[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [77], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yandisa umthetho: akukho mntu unokuvalelwa nangasohlwayo, nokuba ungomnye wahlulelwa njengomntu omncinane, ongafanelekanga, okanye owesisulu, ngaphandle kokuba emelwe zigwetywe ngesiluleko esivavanywayo. Inkundla yaqiqalisela ukuba umgca phakathi kwefelon kunye nowe-demiormis yayisohlwayedwa. Iqongaso ingth-okisayo ukuba isohlwayo: isigwebo somjingth-odensiti, i-6, i-odfrensidemistting, i-eagest.

Kodwa iNkundla yashiya kuvulekile oko kwenzekayo xa ummangalelwa wagwetywa kwisigwebo sentolongo esijingqweyo okanye sokulingwa. Alabama v. Shelton [2002] [iNkundla ivala loo msantsa. Yathi ummangalelwa akanakufumana isigwebo esixhotyisiweyo esinokuthi kamva sivulwe ngaphandle kwesiluleko esinikezelwe ekuthethweni. Ilungelo lokucebisa lincanyathiselwe phambi kokuba livalelwe entolongweni libe yinto enokwenzeka yokwenene.

Uncamathelo Lwasekunene: Luqala Nini?

IsiHlazo seSithandathu sokuLandliselwa kwecala asiqukiselwa ekufumaneni isiluleko. Sincanyathiselwa ekuqalisweni kwetyala lezomthetho (2001). INkundla icacisa ukuba ityala langaphambili, ukuchotshelwa, ukumangalelwa, ulwazi, okanye ukubekwa imvume. Oko yayikukubamba [[FLT: 0]]] i-Rothgery v. Gillespie County [ [2008] [iiityala]. Inkundla icacisa ukuba kanye ityala liqala, ilungelo lokuquqululela icebiso kwaye imo kufuneka inike igqwethameli yabamangali ngexesha elifanelekileyo. Noko ke, alithanga kwicala lamapolisa okanye uncinaniso ngaphandle kokuba litshabhinisiwe. (Umphetho lweziso oluqhelekileyo lungasayinwe ngesiqinisekiso [Foctive [Fomerson]]

Uncedo Olunempumelelo Lwesiluleko: Imibandela Ebalulekileyo

Ukuhlahlela kwamalungelo esiluleko akungokuba negqwetha nje kuphela. UMthetho-Mpanzi weSithandathu uqinisekisa uncedo olunempumelelo. Strickland v. Washington [19984], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka uvavanyo oluneempazamo ezimbini zoncedo lweziluleko. Ummangalelwa kufuneka abonise (1) ukuba ukusebenza kwesiluleko kubuthathaka (kwehlisa iqondo lobungqiqo), kwaye (2) ukuba ukungasebenzi kakuhle kokhuseleko kunokwenzeka okusengqiqweni, kodwa ngenxa yezipho zesiluleko, iziphumo zeso siphiwo esiqhubekekayo zinokuba zahlukile.

I- Imigangatho ye-Strickland idumile ngokuphambili kumagqwetha akhuselayo. Iinkundla azifumani cebiso lingasebenzi. Noko ke, ukunokwenzeka kwezo ngxelo kubangela intshukumisa yomelo olungenabuchule bungako kwaye kunika isivalo sokhuseleko ekungaphumelelini okungalinganiyo.

Impembelelo yokhuthuzo: Inkqubo yokukhusela uluntu nocelomngeni lwayo

Ukuququzelelwa kweSithandathu seSigqibo sokuHlaziya ilungelo lokunika amacebiso kwabangela ukuba kufuneke iinkonzo ezisemthethweni kumahlwempu. Amazwe asabela ngokumisela iiofisi zokukhusela uwonke-wonke, ngokudibana namagqwetha azimeleyo, okanye ngokunika amatyala amagqwetha obuqu iinkqubo zokukhusela. Namhlanje, iiofisi zoluntu zisingatha izigidi zamatyala kulo nyaka ngamnye.

Kanti isithembiso se Gideon ihlala izalisekile ngokwenxalenye. Iinkqubo ezininzi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke zisoloko zingaphantsi kwemiqathango enconywayo kwaye zisebenza kakhulu. Ityala ligqitha kwimida enconywayo. Ngenxa yoko, abamangalelwa bangafumana umelo olunempumelelo. I-American Bar Association kunye neminye imibutho ibhale phantsi kokungaphumeleli kwenkqubo, kuquka ixesha elide elilinda icebiso, oovimba bophendlo abangenamandla, kunye noxinzelelo lokuthethelela uxanduva ngokukhawuleza. Kwezinye imikhosi, abaxhasi bakawonke-wonke baphatha amakhulu emeko zefeliloni ngonyaka, bekwenza kube nzima ukunikela ingqalelo eluncedo kumntu ngamnye ozamxhasi.

INkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba ukuthwaliswa kwetyala ngokugqithiseleyo kungalichasa ilungelo lokufumana uncedo olusebenzayo, kodwa ukunyanzelisa elo lungelo kunzima. Inkoliso yemingeni yokungafezeki kwenkqubo ebanzi, kwaye iinkundla zisoloko zingamathidala ukuphazamisana nendlela oovimba bamatyala abanikezela ngayo. Isiphumo sisixokelelwano sokusesikweni esinika, nangona siqinisekisa ngokusesikweni isiluleko, ngokufuthi sinika isiluleko ngegama kuphela.

Kodwa, ukudibanisa kunyuse umgangatho. Phambi Gideon, abakhohliswa abaninzi babengenalo igqwetha konke konke. Emva Gideon, lonke ilizwe kufuneka linikezele igqwetha naliphi na ityala elijongene nokuvalelwa. Ngoku umlo ulungele ubunjani kwaye unikezelo olulinganayo kuzo zonke iintlobo zetyala.

Eminye Imiqathango Yelungelo Lokululekwa

Ilungelo Lokukhetha Isiluleko Nowavel

ISithandathu SoHlaziyo sikwanika abamangalelwa ilungelo lokugcina isiluleko sokhetho lwabo, nelungelo lokusichitha ngokupheleleyo kwaye bazimela (ukuphela nje xa umenzi wesingxungxo esazi, ekrelekrele, kwaye engokuzithandela). INkundla ixhasa ukuba ukuzimela ngokwayo kunelungelo Horetta v. California [7975], ibambe elo cebiso liquka ilungelo lokuchasa isiluleko nokuqhubeka.

Ukufumana Icebiso Ngokubhenela

Ukuququzelelwa kwelungelo lokucebisa kunwebela kwisibheno sokuqala nje sasekunene. Douglas v. California [1963], iNkundla yathi amatyala kufuneka anikezele ngesiluleko kubamangalelwa abamangalelwa kwisicelo sabo sokuqala esingqalileyo. Noko ke, iNkundla ibambe ukuba akukho lungelo lomGaqo-siseko ukucebisa ngesicelo esigunyazisayo okanye izibongozo ezinyanzelweni kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Lokungxengxezwa

Ukuququzelelwa kweSithandathu lungelo lokunika icebiso limi njengenye yeziphumelelo ezinkulu zomthetho-siseko waseMelika. Yaguqula isiqinisekiso sokuba yakha yasetyenziswa kwinkundla yesizwe kuphela kwimiqathango yesizwe yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngezigqibo ezifana [[FLT: 0] Gideon v. Wainwright, [[FLT]]] [iii-Argergerer v. Hamlin, kunye [[FLT:]RT]GY] ijie . Gillespie County[FLT: 5,], iNkundla yamkela ukuvavanywa ngaphandle kwegqwetham.

Inkqubo yokuqukumbela ayigqitywanga. Nangona isiseko sasekunene sidityanisiwe ngokupheleleyo ngoku, icebo lihlala lingalingani. Umahluko wecebo, ukukrwelwa kwetyala, nokungabi namdla kwezobupolitika kuyaqhubeka kukonakalisa usukelo lobulungisa obulinganayo. Kodwa isiseko somGaqo-siseko somelele. Naliphi na ilizwe elizama ukurhoxisa ummangalelwa ongohlwaywayo wesiluleko liza kufumana izenzo zalo zikhutshwa phantsi.

Ukuququzelelwa kweSithandathu soHlaziyo kukwasebenza njengomzekelo wendlela ezinye iiBhili zaMalungelo eziye zasetyenziswa ngayo kumaphondo. Ibonisa amandla oMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine ukuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asisiseko akangomalungelo nje enzululwazi yendalo kodwa bubuzibulo bawo wonke umntu waseMelika. Ilungelo lokucebisa lelona lungelo lenza onke amalungelo avavanywayo abe nentsingiselo. Ukufakwa kwawo kumthetho karhulumente yaba yindawo yokuguqula qhayisho-/ kwaye umsebenzi wokuwaqonda ngokupheleleyo uyaqhubeka.

[[UMTLL:0] Izalathiso ze-External:[[UMTL:1]