Ukuqonda imida yegunya likarhulumente kubalulekile kwidemokhrasi esebenzayo. Xa abemi beqonda apho igunya elisemthethweni liphela khona kwaye kuqalisa inkululeko yabo, bayakwazi ukuphendula amaziko. Olu hlalutyo luhlolisisa imilinganiselo yezoburhulumente engokwembali, engokomGaqo-siseko neyomhla, luhlolisisa indlela ibutho labantu eliye lazama ngayo ukuvala igunya phakathi kwemida elinokulawulwa ngoxa lilondoloza amandla okulawula ngokunempumelelo.

Isiseko Segunya Likarhulumente Embalini

Umbuzo wokuba urhulumente ufanele abe namandla angakanani urhulumente afanele abe nawo athabathe iingcali zezobupolitika kangangeenkulungwane. Ingcamango yangoku karhulumente olinganiselweyo yavela kwixesha lokukhanyiselwa, xa izithandi-bulumko zaqalisa ukucel ’ umngeni ilungelo lobuthixo lookumkani nokuxhasa ulawulo olusekelwe ekuvumeni. UJohn Locke, kwiyekhe uSivumelo soRhulumente [[[FLTLT:1]], saphikisa ukuba igunya elisemthethweni lisuka kwimvume yabalawuli nakuloo balawuli abachasa amalungelo emvelo baphula isivumelwano soluntu. Iingcamango zakhe zaphembelela kakhulu abaquququzeleli bamaMelika, abafake imigaqo yeSindululo kwiSigqibo soMganiso kunye nomGaqo-siseko.

UMontesquieu, omnye umqwalaseli weNqanawa, waphuhlisa ingcamango yokuba amandla kufuneka ajonge amandla. Umoya woMthetho , wacebisa ukuba kwahlulwe urhulumente abe yimithetho, umphathi, kunye namasebe agwebayo. Esi sakhiwo somjikelo sayilwa ukukhusela nayiphi na into ekhoyo ekufumaneni amandla aneleyo okusongela inkululeko.

Iziganeko ezingundoqo zembali zaqhubeka zilungisa imida yegunya likarhulumente. IMagna Carta (1215) yaseka ukuba kwanokumkani wayephantsi komthetho, imisela umzekelo wemiqathango esemthethweni kubalawuli. IBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo (1689) yafaka izicelo eziqinisekisiweyo nxamnye nokuvalelwa ngokungekho mthethweni okungekho mthethweni kunye nebheyile egqithisileyo, izithintelo ezathi kamva zavela kwi-U.S Bill of Rights. Imvukelo yaseMelika ngokwayo yaba yimvukelo echasene nenganako-xhulumanisholo-hhhhh, isiqinisekiso jikelele, kunye nokumisa imikhosi ngexesha loxolo. Ezi zikhalazo zangeniswa kwimiqathango yomgaqo-mthetho, njengentelelo-Gastrivert , efana nokhuseleko lweSine lokuLamkelo phelo-ejini nxamnye nophendlo-mthetho olungekho sikweni lwamajoni besathu.

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s neyoo 1960 imela umzabalazo wakutshanje wokuguqula igunya likarhulumente. Abaququzeleli bomthetho bacel ’ umngeni iimpikiswano zamalungelo karhulumente ezazithethelele ukwahlulwa kohlanga, zinyanzelisa urhulumente wesizwe ukuba anyanzelise isiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko sokulingana. Lo mbutho wabonisa ukuba imida yegunya ayimi ndawonye; iguquka ngoxinzelelo lwentlalo kunye notoliko lwezomthetho.

Imigaqo Elawula Amandla Karhulumente

Ukuqonda le migaqo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuhlolisisa okanye ukuthethelela iinguqulelo ezinokuthanani nezenzo zikarhulumente.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya alawulayo kwahlula urhulumente wamasebe alinganayo amathathu: amanani owiso-mthetho, anegunya, kunye nezomthetho. Isebe ngalinye liqhelisela imisebenzi eyahlukileyo. IBhunga ngalinye libhala imithetho, uMongameli uyayinyanzelisa, kwaye iinkundla ziyayichaza. Eli candelo lithintela ukuxinezeleka kwegunya ngokwembali. Noko ke, imida phakathi kwamasebe ayisoloko icacisa ingunoxanduva lwezibonelelo zegunya elilawulayo elinamandla, yaye maxa wambi iinkundla ziyayibetha imimiselo esekelwe kwimimiselo esisiseko. La mimandla yokungquzulana ibangela ukuxabana okungaguquguquki, okubangelwa yinjongo. Njengoko uJames Madibeko kubhalwe kuFederalist List. 51, "igquality kufuneka yenziwe ukulwa kwenkqele."

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Ikhangela kunye nolungelelwano lwesebe ngalinye linika izixhobo zokuxhathisa ezinye. UMongameli angawukhupha umthetho, kodwa uMbutho uyakwazi ukuwuyeka loo mthetho kunye namaninzi amabini- mithathu. ICanter iqinisekisa ukuba ii-minene neesivumelwano zenkundla, ngelixa iNdlu iqalisa iindleko zemali. Umthetho ungavakalisa imithetho engathathi mithetho ngokuhlola okulawulayo, amandla amiselwe kwiNkundla ephakamileyo [[FLT: 0]. [[FLT: 1]] [183].[12] [183]. Ezi ndlela ziqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe lilawula. Umzekelo, xa uMongameli u- Harryrusman ezama ukuthatha izinyithi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe, ukunqanda ukulwa kweNkulawula iNkundla ePhakamileyo [FTLY].[FT]

Umthetho

Umthetho womgaqo uthi akukho namnye, kungakhathaliseki isikhundla okanye isikhundla, ongaphezulu komthetho. Amagosa karhulumente kufuneka asebenze ngegunya elinikwe ngumthetho yaye akanakusebenzisa amandla angekho ngqiqweni. Le ngcamango ifuna ukuba imithetho ibe yeyasekuhlaleni, ecacileyo, engazinzi, kwaye isetyenziswe ngokulinganayo. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo sikwi- United States v. Nixon [19974])) ibonise oku: uMongameli Nixon wanyanzelwa ukuba aguqulele ukurekhodi yetepeyipute njengobungqina kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ngokutsho kweNkundla, "Imfundiso yokwahlulwa kwamandla, okanye imfuno yesiseko sonxibelelwano oluphezulu, iyakwazi ukuxhasa ilungelo elipheleleyo, elipheleleyo lokhuseleko lokuzikhusela phantsi kweemeko zomthetho phantsi kwazo zonke ezilawulayo."

Umanyano

Umanyano lwahlula amandla phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente wesizwe, ngamnye onendawo yakhe yegunya. Esi sakhiwo sivumela uvavanyo lwasekuhlaleni kwaye sithintela enye into ephakathi ekusebenziseni ulawulo olupheleleyo. Ugcino lweSimende seTenth sokuLawula kumazwe (okanye abantu) nawuphi na ulawulo olungagunyaziswanga kurhulumente wesizwe okanye olungagunyaziswanga kumazwe. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, umlinganiselo wokulungelelaniswa kolawulo. Umthetho omtsha kunye noMbutho omkhulu wandisa igunya lesizwe kwimimandla efana nezorhwebo nentlalo. Kutshanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yanciphisa le ngxaki, njengoko ibonwa kulawulo lwe-Intelliventi-Intelliventi-M. Sebelismous[[FLT] V.[FLFLF1:2], nto leyo enciphisa ulawulo lwe-Islancencelventine.

ISiseko soMgaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, ukuseka ukwakhiwa kwenkundla yorhulumente kunye nokudweliswa kwamagunya akhe. Kwalo kanye isakhiwo solu xwebhu sibonakalisa ukukrokra okunzulu kwegunya eliphakamileyo. IGatya Inika onke amandla owiso-mthetho kwiKhosareji, iGatya II iipafti ezilawulayo kuMongameli, kunye neQumrhu II lezakhono zokwalatha kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla eziphantsi. Amandla akhethekileyo anikwe isebe ngalinye alinganiselwe. IBhunga, umzekelo, lisebenza kuphela kwimicimbi ebalazwe liyiRhulumente I, iCandelo 8=indesiGawulayo, ukucelela imali, nokunika imfazwe.

IBhili yamaLungelo, intengiso yokuqala elishumi, inikela ukhuseleko olucacileyo nxamnye norhulumente ophathwe kakubi. UHlaziyo Lokuqala luqinisekisa inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisa kunye nesibongozo. UMthetho wesibini wokuHlaziya ukhusela ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo. UMthetho-wesine wokuLawula uthintela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhwaleka, ufuna imvume esekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo. Uhlaziyo lwesihlanu luqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzinqanda ukuziqubisa. Le ngxaki ibhalwe ngenxa yoloyiko lokuba urhulumente onamandla uya kunyanzela urhulumente othile inkululeko. Azikho iinkundla ezipheleleyo ezithe zaqonda ukuba urhulumente uyakwazi ukulawula intetho ngokwezimeko ezimngcingo (umz., ukuqhushumbisa, ukuhlamba, ukuhlamba iimbombo ezingekho mthethweni) yaye ihambo ethile phantsi kokuzingela phantsi kolawulo lwawo. Kodwa ezi bunzima bebugcinelwanelwa ngurhulumente.

Inkqubo yokulungisa ngokwayo imele umda kwigunya. Inqaku V lifuna ababini-sithathu abaninzi kuzo zombini izindlu zongcedo (okanye indibano ebizwa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezimbini eziziisithathu zesizwe) ukucebisa ukubuyiselwa, kunye neekota ezintathu zikarhulumente ukuyilungisa. Lo mqobo uphezulu uqinisekisa ukuba utshintsho olungundoqo kwisakhiwo sikarhulumente alunakwenziwa ngobuninzi obudlulayo. Kuphela amashumi amabini anesixhenxe amaxa agqityiweyo agunyaziswe ngeminyaka engaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, ebonisa utshintsho lwemGaqo-siseko.

Izigqibo Zokugweba Ezibalaseleyo

Ijaji idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni imida yegunya likarhulumente. Ngokuhlolisisa okugweba, iinkundla zitolika umGaqo-siseko zize zibethelele izenzo ezingaphaya kwemiqathango yomgaqo-siseko. Iimeko eziliqela eziphawula izinto ziye zaguqula ukuqonda kwale mida yanamhlanje.

Marbury v. Madison (103)

Kulo tyala lisisiseko, uMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall wamisela umgaqo wokuhlola isigwebo, “‘ amandla eNkundla Ephakamileyo ukuvakalisa izenzo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo engekho mgaqo-siseko. Ityala lavela kwimpikiswano etyholwayo yezobupolitika ngokubekwa kwekomiti. Marshall waqiqa ukuba umGaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo, kwaye ngumsebenzi wejaji ukugqiba oko kuthethwa ngumthetho. Esi sigqibo sanika iinkundla isixhobo esinamandla sokuhlola ipropati nomphathi onegunya, nangona kwamashumi eminyaka yasetyenziswa ngokungenamali.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Esi sigqibo sangqinelanayo saphelisa ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, sibhukuqa imfundiso "yahlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo" evela ku -Plesty v. Ferguson [1896]. INkundla yathi izikolo ezimiselwe ngokwahlukileyo zaphula umthetho iSikhuseli sobuhlanga sika-Celasmente ka-14. Brown[[FLT]] [FLT]] [iklt]] ibonise ukuba igunya likarhulumente alinakusetyenziswa ukukhuthaza ucalucalucalulo, kwanokuba ucalucalucalulo lunelo olungokwembali. Isigqibo samiselwa kwisambulo somthetho we-Genearcial Develoption, kuquka nokusebenzisa umkhosi wesizwe ukukhusela abafundi abamnyama abadanjiweyo kuzo zonke izikolo ezimhlophe. Ulawulo lwesizwe sibonelelo lwasebuzwe-National Revericraltic [FFF:]

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Esi sigqibo sididayo saqonda ukuba ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa, eliboniswa nguMphetho-mvakalo weshumi elinesine, lifikelela kwisigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Inkundla yathi alunakuwufumana umthwalo ongafanelekanga phambi kokuba umbungu uphumelele, mhlawumbi ekupheleni kweyesibini. Roe ubonise umda phakathi komntu ngamnye kunye namandla ombuso phezu kokuma komzimba. Emashumi eminyaka kamva, iNkuNkundla yenzekade . IJacks.Dobs v. Jackson's Organization of Health [202] [202])] ilawula [FLT] [FLD:] [FFFF:4] [FFLT] [FFFD], ibuyisela umgaqo wokuqhomzelela.

United States v. Nixon (1974)

Njengoko kuphawulwe ngaphambili, eli tyala lagxininisa ukuba uMongameli akangaphezulu kumthetho. Inkundla yalandula ilizwi likaNixon lobugqwesa obupheleleyo belungelo lokulawula ekuzinziseni ubungqina, imyalelo yokukhutshwa kweteyipu erekhodiweyo enxulumene nophando lwaseWatergate. Isigqibo saphinda saqinisekisa indima yejaji ekuchazeni imida yegunya elilawulayo, kwanakwimibandela yokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nonxibelelwano oluyimfihlo. Umphengululi wezomGaqo-siseko uAkhilided Remar uyibize ngokuthi "ityala elibaluleke kakhulu lomphathi-wongameli kwimbali yaseMelika" kuba icacisa ukuba akukho mphathi-mikhosi onelungelo elingafikelelekiyo.

Iintlawulo

Iingxoxo zanamhlanje ngegunya likarhulumente zisekelwe kubugcisa obutsha, inkxalabo yokhuseleko lwamazwe, kunye nokuphelisa izithethe zentlalo. Iinkalo eziliqela ezingundoqo ziyaqhubeka zivavanya imida yamandla avunyelweyo.

Imfundo Nento Efihlakeleyo

Iinkqubo zolawulo zikarhulumente zinyuke ngokuphawulekayo ukususela kuhlaselo lwe-USA PARIYOTT. Umthetho wanika abanyanzelisi bomthetho igunya eliphangaleleyo lokuqwalasela unxibelelwano, iirekhodi zonikezelo, kunye nesenzo "sneak kunye nokukhangela" ukukhangela. I-Freign Invertive Surveillance Act (FISA) ivelise inkundla ekhethekileyo yokugunyazisa ukujongwa kwabameli bangaphandle, kodwa ivulile ukuba i-National Security Agement (NSA) yayiqokelela izinqumlisi zeminali kwii-minxeba ze-mfonomfonomfono zama-mfono. I-ACLULU ilucel'icel' le nkqubo [[FLT: 0] [2] ityala elingundoqo lokhuseleko lokhuseleko lombane, kodwa ivumela ukusetyenziswa kweminxeba eliqhelekileyo lombane, i-droma, i-drom, i-octive, e-octive, e-oct.[FLt.[F.][F

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Neeplat Ezikunxibelelwano

UHlaliso Lokuqala lukwalela urhulumente ekuthinteleni ukunqanda ukuthethwa okusekelwe kokuqulethweyo, kodwa alukuthinteli iinkampani zabucala ukuba zisasaze iiplatfomu zazo. Iimpucuko zezonxibelelwano zezentlalo-ntle njenge Facebook, iTwitter, kunye neYouTube ziye zajamelana noxinzelelo lwamacala omabini: abagxeki abasemalungeni abatyhola amalizwi angaguqukiyo, ngoxa abagxeki abasekhohlo bevumela ukuthethwa kwentiyo kunye nokungakhutshwa kwentetho. Inkundla yenkundla ingurhulumente iyakwazi ukuvala abagxeki be-Trump ityala ngenxa yokuba i-atrum ityala. Inkundla izama ukunyanzelela iinqobo ukuphelisa okuqulathwe yi-temvo. Inkundla i-Crump ingulo iyakwazi ukuvala umqobo kwingxelo ye-Xul i-Xell nge-Spectivesting ngeminyaka evavanyiweyo.

Imiyalelo yegunya nesenzo esingahambisaniyo

Abalawuli bobabini basebenzisa imiyalelo yabalawuli abalawulayo ukudlula kwi-optional locky yowiso-mthetho kunye nokumisela utshintsho lwenkqubo ngaphandle kweBhunga. Imiyalelo ingagqumathelela ukufuduka (Inyathelo Eliceliweyo Lokufika Kwabantwana, DACA), ulawulo lwemeko-bume (Izicwangciso Zegunya Eliphezulu), kunye nenkqubo yamanye amazwe (ukuvalwa kwemithetho). Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba abalawuli bemithetho-siseko baye bayigqitha indima yabo yesiseko somthetho, basebenza njengabalawuli kunokuba balawule. Iinkundla ziye zayityhalela emva izihlandlo eziliqela. Umzekelo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ixhasa i-DACA kwimicimbi elandelayo, ebangela ukuba kusetyenziswe imiyalelo yokuphatha i-ofisi, elandela imiyalelo elandelayo, ebangela ukubuyiselwa kwemigaqo yezomthetho, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho elawulayo.

Ukudlulisela Amalungelo Nengqibelelo Yokhetho

Ilungelo lokuvota lisekelwe kwisiseko sokuziphendulela kolawulo-modemokrasi, kodwa iye yaba ngumthetho ozingisileyo wemfazwe. IVoting Rights Act ka-65 yalwalela ucalucalulo lohlanga ekuvoteni kwaye kwafuneka ukuba kubekho imimandla elawulayo ekwimbali yocalulo ukuze kufunyanwe imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yonyulo (preclarance). Shelby County v. [[FFLT]] Shover [[FLT] [[FLT] [2013]] [2013], iNkuMbukonganyelo ePhakamileyo yawahlula imigaqo esetyenziswa ukumisa imigaqo egqunywe, ukukhupha ingxube yomthetho ekhutshelweyo, ukurhola i-ontaphane. Umthetho othelelwa yi-oventi ye-oventir.

Indima Yobandakanyeko Lomsebenzi

Ekugqibeleni, imida yegunya likarhulumente ayigcinwa ngamaziko kuphela. Ukubophelelana okunenzondelelo kwezentlalo kubalulekile ukuze kugcinwe igunya lilawula. Xa abemi bexelelwe, belungele ukuthatha inxaxheba, bomeleza iintsimbi zedemokhrasi ezithintela ukuphangwa.

  • Ukuthatha inxaxheba: Eyona ndlela ithe ngqo yokuphembelela ulawulo lukarhulumente. Phantsi umvoti urhoxa kwigunya kwizinto ezikhethekileyo kunye nezingalawulekiyo. Amagosa aphezulu amagosa athatha inxaxheba aphendule kwiimeko ezibanzi.
  • Ukuhlanganisa amagosa anyuliweyo: Iileta, ii-imeyili, umnxeba, kunye nababeze kwiholo yedolophu bavumela abemi ukuba bachaze iimbono zabo kwimibandela ethile. Uxinzelelo lukawonke-wonke lusoloko lutshintshile inkqubo, njengakumbutho wokuphelisa idrafti ngexesha leVietnam.
  • Ukungagunyazi nokukhalaza: IsiHlanzi sokuqala sikhusela ilungelo lokuhlanganisa nokucela. Ukusuka kwiBoston Tea Party ukuya kuMatshi, izikhalazo zitsale ingqalelo kwizikhalazo kunye nokunyanzelwa kwenguquko. Ukungathobeli kwemithetho yoluntu ngoxolo, xa ijongwa njengengenabulungisa, ivavanya imida yegunya likarhulumente kwaye ikhokelela ekuguquleni kwemithetho.
  • Ukuqhuba iofisi okanye ukusebenza kwiibhodi: inxaxheba ngqo kurhulumente kuwo onke amanqanaba($ibhodi yesikolo sesikolo, ibhunga lesixeko, indlu yowiso-mthetho yesixeko, indawo zabemi kwiindawo apho banokubumba imida yegunya ngaphakathi.
  • Imibutho egadayo egadileyo: Amaqela afana ne-American Civil Liberties Union, i-Electronic Foundation, kunye ne-Brennan Center yokujonga imisebenzi karhulumente nobulungisa ukuze kuthintelwe ukuphazanyiswa. Ukunikela okanye ukunikela ngokuzithandela ngolo hlobo ulawulo lwequmrhu.

Ukubotshwa kwe-CUBIC kufuna imfundo. Ukuqonda umGaqo-siseko, iBhili yamaLungelo, kunye nezigqibo zenkundla eziphawula iziganeko zendalo kuxhobisa abemi ukuba baqonde xa urhulumente ethabatha amanyathelo ngaphaya kwemida yakhe. Izibonelelo ezifana neZiko lomGaqo-siseko wesizwe zibonelela ngezinto ezinokufumaneka ukuze kungenelwe ukuzifundela. Izikolo kunye nemibutho yasekuhlaleni zingakhuthaza ukufundiswa kwezemfundo yasekuhlaleni kwimicimbi yemfundo yesikolo neyoluntu. Abantu abadumile balungela ukukhusela ukurhoxa kwenkululeko.

Isiphelo

Imida yegunya likarhulumente ayizinziswanga okanye azizinzileyo. Ziziphumo zokulwa okungokwembali, umgaqo-siseko, ukucaciswa kwezahlulelo, nokuzibophelela okuqhubekayo kwabantu. Iinjongo zokukhanyiselwa korhulumente osisigxina ziye zavavanywa ziimfazwe, iingxaki zezoqoqosho, utshintsho lobugcisa, kunye nentsebenziswano yezentlalo. Isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka siqinisekise loo mida, ilungelelanisa ezo meko ezintsha ngoxa silondoloza umgaqo ongundoqo wokuba amandla amele ahlale ephendula kubantu. Njengoko abemi, imbopheleleko ibekwe kuthi ngamnye wethu ukuze sihlale ephaphile, efundile, ekhuthele, ekhuthele, kwaye esebenza. Kuphela ngenxaxheba kwezentlalo-ntle ekhoyo siya kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente umkhonzi, kungekhona inkosi, yebutho elikhululekileyo.