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Ukwazisa Igunya Elilawula Ijaji
Inkqubo yenkundla yenza isiseko salo naliphi na ibutho elilawulwa ngumthetho. Lilungiselelo elicombulula ngalo iimpikiswano, imithetho iyatolikwa, kwaye kumiselwe okusesikweni. Ngoxa isakhiwo esikhethekileyo seenkundla siyahluka ngokwelizwe ngalinye, sikho isiseko senkundla senkcubeko eqhelekileyo: iinkundla zommandla esisisiseko, iinkundla ze-appelte embindini, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo encotsheni. Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo asingosamagqhinga nabagwebi kuphela; kubalulekile kumntu ngamnye osenokufuna usuku olunye ukuqhuba ibala elisemthethweni. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa umyingeno ngamnye ngokweenkcukacha, lichaza indlela amatyala ahamba ngayo phakathi kwenkqubo, kwaye libalaselisa ukubaluleka kwentloko entloko.
Ukuze ubani aqonde ngokupheleleyo isakhiwo senkundla, kuqala kufuneka aqonde ingqiqo yolawulo. I Juriscion ibhekisela kwigunya lenkundla lokuphulaphula nokugqiba ngetyala. Isenokulinganiselwa ngemeko-bume, umcimbi wempikiswano, okanye isixa semali ebandakanyekileyo. Umzekelo, inkundla yenkundla yasekuhlaleni kwidolophu encinane ayinakuphulaphula ityala lerhafu likarhulumente, kanye njengokuba inkundla ephakamileyo ingenakuliva ityala elibandakanya umthetho wasekuhlaleni kuphela. Inkundla yeenkundla zenkundla yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba ityala ngalinye lifanelekile kwaye iinkundla eziphezulu zinokulungisa iimpazamo ezenziwa ngabaphantsi. Le nkqubo ibekwe phantsi inikela ityala elifanelekileyo nelwongamele liphendule.
Isakhiwo senkundla esisebenzayo sikwaxhasa umgaqo wenkqubo efanelekileyo. Inkqubo elindelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba ityala lifanelekile kwaye abantu ngabanye banesaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa. Xa inkundla esezantsi yenza impazamo okanye isophula inkqubo efanelekileyo, iinkundla ezidlulisela iziphumo zempazamo zikhona ukuze zifumane ezo mpazamo. Ngaphandle kweqela lemigangatho elicacileyo, bekungayi kubakho cebo lokuhlola, kwaye okusesikweni bekungayi kuba semthethweni.
Kumacandelo alandelayo, siza kuhlolisisa iinkundla zasekuhlaleni, iinkundla ezifumana ityala, kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo ezinzulu. Siza kuhlola kwakhona iinkundla ezikhethekileyo, umahluko phakathi kweenkqubo zorhulumente nezorhulumente, kunye nefuthe elibanzi lezigwebo. Ekupheleni, uya kuyiqonda ngokucokisekileyo indlela inkqubo yenkundla esebenza ngayo ukususela emhlabeni ukuya phezulu.
Iinkundla Zasekuhlaleni: Inkundla Ephambili Yokusesikweni
Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zilapho abantu abaninzi basebenzisana nenkqubo yokugweba. Ezi nkundla zisingatha amatyala amaninzi yaye zingumgangatho wokuqala wokungaqiniseki. Zisoloko zibizwa njengeenkundla zamatyala okanye iinkundla zokuqala ngenxa yokuba zilapho kuvela khona amatyala. EUnited States, iinkundla zasekuhlaleni ziquka iinkundla zikamasipala, iinkundla zamabamba, iinkundla zamaphondo, neenkundla zamatyala ezincinane. Kwamanye amazwe, zisenokubizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesithili, iinkundla zoxolo, okanye iinkundla zephondo.
Umsebenzi oyintloko weenkundla zasekuhlaleni kukuva ubungqina, ukugqiba izibakala, nokusebenzisa umthetho ukuze kufikelelwe kwisigqibo okanye kumgwebo. Ziqhuba iityala, enoba ngamajaji okanye ngabachopheli-tyala, kwaye zikhupha imiyalelo okanye izigwebo. Ngenxa yokuba zisingatha amatyala amaninzi, iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zenzelwe ukuphumelela. Umzekelo, iinkundla ezincinane ziye zawenza lula umgaqo-nkqubo kwaye zisoloko zilinganisela imali enokuphikiswa, zivumela abantu ukuba bazimela ngaphandle kwegqwetha.
Iintlobo Zeenkundla Zasekuhlaleni Nesigwebo Sazo
Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zivela ngeendlela ezininzi, nganye inegunya elikhethekileyo. Iinkundla zikaMasipala zisoloko zisingatha ukwaphulwa kwendlela, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwasekuhlaleni, kunye netyala lolwaphulo-mthetho elincinane elinjengehambo engalungelelananga. Iinkundla zamatyala zisoloko zisingatha amatyala okuqala kwiimeko ezimatyala, zimisela ibheyile, zikhupha nemiyalelo. Iinkundla zentsapho zijolise ingqalelo kuphela kwimicimbi efana noqhawulo mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ugonyamelo lwasekhaya, kunye nokufumana imvume yokufumana abantwana. Iinkundla zenkundla zezomthetho zisingatha izigwebo, imimandla, kunye nemikhosi egcina imicimbi egcina imicimbi. Iinkundla ezincinane zithetha ukuba zicombulule iimbambano ezithe ngokucokisekileyo kwiimali – ngokufuthi kumawaka ambalwa eedolan
Uhlobo ngalunye lwenkundla yasekuhlaleni lusebenza kwimida echazwe kakuhle. Umzekelo, inkundla kamasipala ayinakuliva ityala elibandakanya imibandela yezakhono zomhlaba ngenxa yokuba ibekwe phantsi kolawulo lwenkundla ephakamileyo okanye inkundla yephondo ekhethekileyo okanye yamakhaya. Olu lwakhiwo luqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi banobuchule obufanelekileyo kwaye amatyala alungelelaniswe kakuhle. Ngokwe- i-Ofisi yolawulo ye-U.S. iinkundla zeenkundla zephondo (inkundla zamatyala kwinkqubo yorhulumente) zinegunya lolwaphulo-mthetho olusemthethweni, iisutilokhwe eziphantsi komthetho worhulumente, kunye nolawulo lwezomthetho lwahlukene-mthetho obandakanya abemi bamazwe ahlukeneyo.
Nangona ziphantsi kwisikhundla sabefundisi, iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zidla ngokuba nempembelelo kakhulu kubemi abaqhelekileyo. Amava okuqala omntu kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni asenokulungela ukulwela ilungelo lokugcinwa enkundleni yentsapho okanye kwinkundla encinane ezama ukufumana indawo egciniweyo yokhuseleko. Izigqibo ezenziwe kweli cala zinokuba nemiphumo enzulu kubomi babantu ngabanye, nto leyo ebangela ukuba ilungelo lokubhenela kwinkundla ephakamileyo libaluleke kakhulu.
Iinkqubo kunye nobunzima
Iinkundla zommandla ngamaziko aphezulu ovolume. Kumazwe amaninzi, abagwebi basingatha amatyala amaninzi ngosuku. Oku kuthetha ukuba imithetho yesithethe kufuneka ilandelwe ngokungqongqo ukugcina ucwangco. Umzekelo, abamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho badla ngokubekwa umthetho kamsinya emva kokuba bebanjiwe, apho kufundwa izityholo, kwaye kufakwa izicelo. Amatyala amakhaya alandela ixesha lokugcina ityala, ukufunyanwa, ukuquluthwa, nokuvavanywa. Umthetho we-Federal we-procecdective kunye norhulumente unika isiseko. Ngoxa le mithetho ichazwa ngokucophelelayo, iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zisoloko zisenza ukuba zilungele ukuthwala iinkundla zazo.
Enye inkalo ephawulekayo yeenkundla zasekuhlaleni kukusetyenziswa kweminye imiqathango yezona mpikiswano (ADR) njengenkqubo yokuqulunqwa nokuququzelelwa. Iinkundla ezininzi zasekuhlaleni ngoku zifuna amaqela ukuba azame ukuzama ukuququzelela ityala ngaphambi kokuchotshelwa kwetyala, ingakumbi kumthetho wentsapho nakwimicimbi emincinane. I-ADR ingenza umthwalo kwiinkundla zenkundla ize ikhokelele kwiziphumo ezikhawulezileyo, ezingephi. Kodwa ukuba i-ADR iyangaphumeleli, elo tyala liyaqhubeka lityala elingokwesithethe phambi kwejaji okanye kwijaji.
Omnye umsebenzi ongundoqo weenkundla zasekuhlaleni kukuqinisekisa ukuba imiyalelo yokukhusela kunye nemiyalelo yokuthintela yexeshana. Kwityala lasekhaya, ijaji kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni ingakhupha umyalelo wokukhusela ixhoba. Ngokufanayo, kwiimbambano ezibambeneyo zomnini-ndlu, inkundla yasekuhlaleni ingayalela ukuba kugxothwe okanye kulungiswe. Ezi ntetho zikhawulezileyo zibonisa indima ebalulekileyo ephunyezwa zinkundla zasekuhlaleni kubomi bemihla ngemihla.
Ukusikelwa Sisigxina Nemfuneko Yokutsalwa
Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zisingatha umthamo omkhulu wetyala yaye zisoloko zilathiswa ngumgwebi omnye, kunokwenzeka iimpazamo. Ijaji ingawuchaza kakubi umthetho, ingabushiyi ubungqina obubalulekileyo, okanye ifumane inyani engaxhaswa bubungqina. Ngaphezu koko, abagwebi benkundla yasekuhlaleni banokunyulwa okanye bamiselwe, kwaye izigqibo zabo zinokuphenjelelwa lucalucalulo lwezopolitiko okanye lobuqu. Inkqubo yenkqubo ye-appellate ikho ukulungisa ezi mpazamo. Ngaphandle kokuhlola, imigaqo yeenkundla zasekuhlaleni iya kuba yeyo yokugqibela, nokuba kuphosa.
Izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni zidla ngokuya kwinkundla ephakathi, nangona kwezinye iindawo ezinemigangatho emibini kuphela, izibheno zinokuya ngqo kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Inkqubo yezicelo iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswa ngokungaguqukiyo kwaye amalungelo angundoqo ayakhuselwa. Ukuqonda ukuba izigqibo zenkundla yasekuhlaleni zimele zihlolwe ukuze zinikezelwe uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwigunya lenkundla.
Iinkundla Ezimangalelwayo: IZibonda Zokungaguquguquki Okusemthethweni
Iinkundla eziphandayo ziqulathe ithala eliphakathi lenkundla elawulayo. Indima yazo ephambili kukuhlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla zamatyala zasekuhlaleni. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, iinkundla zokuchophela amacala aziwameli amatsha, zive ubungqina obutsha, okanye zinikele ubungqina obungqinayo. Endaweni yoko, zivavanya ingxelo yamatyala angaphantsi enkundla ukuze zibone enoba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenzeka kusini na ezichaphazelekayo kwisigqibo setyala. Inkundla yenkundla elawulayo inokuxhasa, ijike, ijike, i-vacaste, okanye iguqule isigwebo senkundla esezantsi.
I-United States ineenkqubo ezimbini ezingundoqo zenkundla: iinkundla zesiphaluka zesiphaluka zephondo kunye neenkundla zetyala lephondo. Inkqubo karhulumente ineenkundla zesiphaluka ezili-13 zesiphaluka, ngasinye esigquma ummandla othile wengingqi kunye nezibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili zesiphaluka. Izakhiwo zephondo ziyahluka: ezinye zinenkundla enye edibeneyo, ezinye zinenkundla ephakathi kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo. Umzekelo, iKhalifoni ineenkundla ezintandathu zesithili, ngoxa urhulumente omncinane njengoVermont enenkundla ephakamileyo kuphela ephulaphula onke amacala.
Imigangatho yempinda
Iinkundla zezicelo zisebenzisa imilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yokuhlola kuxhomekeke kuhlobo lwenkupho ebhencwayo. Kwimibuzo yomthetho – efana nokuba ummiselo utolikiwe ngokuchanekileyo okanye inkundla ethatha inyathelo ihlola isigqibo senkundla esezantsi de novo (entsha), ithetha ukuba ayinikezi thuba kwizigqibo zenkundla ezichaphazelekayo. Kwimibuzo efana nokuba ubungqina banele ukuxhasa isigqibo, inkundla yenkundla isebenzisa umgangatho obalulekileyo, ngokufuthi ibizwa ngokuba “impazamo enkulu” okanye“ ubungqina obubalulekileyo. ” Izigqibo zeqhinga, njengokukhanyelwa kwendlela entsha yokuvavanywa, umjelo womthetho “ukusebenzisa ingqiqo."
Le migaqo ibonisa indima yetyala nenkundla egwebayo. Iinkundla zetyala zimiswe kakuhle ukuvavanya ukuthembeka nokuvavanya ubungqina ngenxa yokuba zibona yaye ziva amangqina ngokobuqu. Iinkundla ezifumana iziphumo zengxelo ezibhaliweyo, zigxininisa ekuchaneni okusemthethweni. Eli candelo liqinisekisa ukuba umgangatho ngamnye udlala ngamandla awo.
Inkqubo yesibheno
Ukubhena ityala, iqela elilahlekileyo kufuneka lifake isaziso sesibheno kwisakhelo esithile sexesha elithile, esiqhele ukuba ziintsuku ezingama-30 ukusuka kumgwebo wokugqibela. I-apulant (umbutho onomtsalane) ngoko inikezela ngempikiswano emfutshane ebhaliweyo yokuba kutheni isigqibo senkundla esezantsi siphosakele. I-appelle (amaqela aphikisana nesibheno) ifakela iifayile zempendulo. Kwiziko leenkundla ezininzi ze-appelte, ityala ngoko licwangciselwe ukuthethwa ngempikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo, apho amagqwetha anikela iingongoma zawo ezingundoqo kwaye aphendula imibuzo evela kwiqela leejaji (Ngokuqhelekileyo ezintathu). Emva kokuqwalasela, inkundla inika uluvo olubhaliweyo lokuchaza isigqibo sayo. Ezi mbono zidla ngokuba yisivumelwano esigunyazisa ityala kwiimeko zexesha elizayo.
Ummiselo wophawu oluthe tye
Ezinye zeenguqu ezibalulekileyo ezingokwasemthethweni embalini zavela kwizigwebo zenkundla ephakamileyo. Umzekelo, kwiBrown v. Board of Education* (1954), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. (inkundla ephakamileyo ephetheyo) yarhoxa inkundla ephakamileyo (elinganayo kodwa elingana" ne"mfundiso". Kodwa phambi kokuba ifike kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, elo tyala ladlula kwinkundla yesithili kunye neNkundla yeSiphatho yeSizwe yeNtloko. Umgangatho ngamnye unikele ekuqinisekiseni isigqibo ekugqibeleni. Ngokufanayo, iinkundla zephondo zephondo zikhuphe izigwebo ezibalulekileyo kwimibandela efana nokulingana komtshato, ukuphendla, ukuphamba, kunye nesigwebo sokufa.
Ngokuqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokusesikweni, iinkundla ezigwebayo ziphakamisa intembelo yoluntu kwinkundla yamatyala. Xa inkundla yamatyala yenza isigqibo esingekho sikweni, inkundla elawulayo inikela isicombululo. Lo mnatha wokhuseleko ubalulekile kwinkqubo yokusesikweni ezimisele ukuphatha bonke abantu ngokulinganayo phantsi komthetho.
IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo: Abagwebi Bokugqibela
Inkundla ephakamileyo yeyona iphakamileyo kwiqumrhu lenkundla ephakamileyo. Linegunya elipheleleyo lokutolika umthetho nokugqiba amatyala. EUnited States, kukho iinkundla ezimbini eziphakamileyo kumgangatho ophakamileyo: iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. kwimicimbi karhulumente, yaye iphondo ngalinye linenkundla yalo ephakamileyo (ngamanye amaxesha ebizwa ngokuba yinkundla yokugqibela) kwimicimbi yaseburhulumenteni. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.
Umsebenzi oyintloko wenkundla ephakamileyo kukusombulula imibuzo yomthetho ebaluleke kakhulu kuluntu okanye ebandakanya iinkcazelo ezingqubanayo kwiinkundla ezincinci. Iinkundla ezininzi eziphakamileyo zinegunya elisemthethweni, ithetha ukuba zikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala ezimele ziwaphulaphule. KwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., oku kwenziwa ngelinye icala leCeartiari. Inkundla ifumana izibongozo ezimalunga nama-7000 nyaka ngamnye kodwa iphulaphule kuphela malunga namatyala ali-80 ukuya kuma-100.
Amandla Okuphengulula Ngokweejaji
Esinye sezixhobo ezinamandla zenkundla ephakamileyo kukuhlola okulawulayo – igunya lokuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ezingekho semthethweni. Eli gunya lamiselwa eUnited States ngu *Madison* (1803). Uhlolo lwezomthetho luvumela inkundla ephakamileyo ukuba ibethe umthetho ochasene nomgaqo-siseko, nokuba loo mthetho udluliswe ngoninzi lwedemokhrasi. Oku kuhlola igunya lowiso-mthetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu kusisesona siseko somgaqo-siseko wale mihla.
Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zikwachaza imimiselo nemigaqo, ngokufuthi zinikela ufundo oluqinisekisiweyo olukhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente. Izigqibo zazo zinokuba neziphumo ezitshayelelayo. Umzekelo, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ilawula * Obergefell v. Hodges* (2015) isibini esinye esinee-se-sexeni esinelungelo lokutshata, sitsho saphula umthetho kwimithetho ephakamileyo kumazwe amaninzi. Ngokufanayo, inkundla ephakamileyo ingakhupha ityala kumalungelo phantsi komgaqo-siseko, nto leyo enokuthi ikhuseleke ngakumbi kunalawo asemaqulungwini.
Indlela Awafikelela Ngayo Amatyala Enkundla Ephakamileyo
Asiyotyala ngalinye elilahlekayo kwinkundla ephezulu. Le ndlela ithintelwe kumatyala anyusela umbuzo obalulekileyo karhulumente (kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.) okanye umcimbi womGaqo-siseko okanye womthetho (kwinkundla ephakamileyo). Kwinkqubo karhulumente, amatyala adla ngokusiphelisa sonke isibheno kwiinkundla ezisezantsi ngaphambi kokuba afune isibeleko. Amanye amatyala, njengalawo abandakanya iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe okanye izigidimi, angaqala kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo phantsi kolawulo lwayo lokuqala, kodwa la matyala anqabile.
Xa ityala lamkelekile, ifayile yamatheko ifanele ixelwe kafutshane, kwaye i-anicus curia (umhlobo wenkundla) isoloko ibekwa ngamaqela enzala, amaphondo, okanye abantu ngabanye. Iimpikiswano zequmrhu ziyaqulwa, zithatha iyure enye. Iinkundla zezobulungisa zingqungquthela ngasese ukuze zixubushe ityala kwaye zivote. Uluvo lwamaninzi lubhaliswe ngomthetho omnye kwaye lusasazwe ngamagqabaza phambi kokuba lupapashwe. Ukungavumelani kunye neembono eziqulukileyo kusenokubhalwa.
I-website esemthethweni yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ichaza iinkcukacha zenkqubo yayo kwaye inika ukufikelela kwiimbono zayo. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kugxininisa ukucingisisa ngocoselelo ngaphaya kwesigqibo ngasinye seNkundla Ephakamileyo.
Impembelelo neLifa
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziyavakala kwizizukulwana. Zichaza indlela yokuhamba kwenkululeko yabemi, amandla orhulumente, kunye nomgaqo wezoqoqosho. Ukutolika kweNkundla umGaqo-siseko kuyaguquka ngokuhamba kwexesha, kubonakalisa iinguqu kwibutho labantu nakwintanda-bulumko yokugweba. Ngokomzekelo, izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwimiqathango yolwaphulo-mthetho (umz., * * uMenda neMirita v. Arizona*) zatshintsha uqheliselo lwamapolisa. Ngokukhawuleza, izigqibo zempilo (umz., * National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius*, 2012) kunye nokuqhomfa (umz. * Dobs.bs. l.Adomes Organizationy Health*, 20222) zineziphumo ezinzulu zezentlalo-ntle nezopolitiki.
Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla eziphakamileyo zilelona gama lokugqibela, ukuqamba kwazo kunye neenkqubo zokwenza izigqibo ziyimicimbi enomdla omkhulu kuluntu. Ukuququzelelwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States kuphenjelelwa kakhulu, kwaye iintanda-bulumko zomthetho zinokuphembelela ulwalathiso lomthetho kangangamashumi eminyaka. Kubalulekile ukuba abemi baqonde ukuba nangona iinkundla eziphakamileyo zinamandla, kwakhona zinyanzelwa ngokomzekelo, ukucaciswa kwemithetho, kwaye kufuneka kugcinwe umthetho osemthethweni.
Iinkundla Ezikhethekileyo Nendima Yazo
Ngaphandle kwemigangatho jikelele, izikhululo ezininzi ziye zamisela iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala ngobuchule nangempumelelo. Ezi nkundla zisebenza ecaleni okanye ngaphakathi kwenkundla eqhelekileyo. Imizekelo iquka iinkundla zerhafu, iinkundla zokuwa kwamali, iinkundla zokuthintela imekobume, neenkundla zeziyobisi. Kwinkqubo karhulumente, iNkundla yerhafu yase-U.S. iphula iimpikiswano phakathi kwabahlawuleli kunye ne-IRS, ngoxa iNkundla ye-U.
Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zisoloko zisebenzisa iindlela ezinokusetyenziswa kubulungisa. Ngokomzekelo, iinkundla zeziyobisi zijolise ingqalelo ekulungisweni kwakhona kunokusohlwaywa kwabasebenzi beziyobisi abangenamandla. Iinkundla zezempilo zengqondo zinika inkxaso kubamangalelwa abanesifo sengqondo. Iinkundla zonyango lwengqondo zinceda abo babekho ngaphambili bengamalungu enkonzo. Ezi nkundla zilawula iingxaki zizimisele ukucombulula iinjongo ezisisiseko zesimilo solwaphulo-mthetho, ukucutha ukupheliswa kwe-Recifix kunye nokuphucula iziphumo. Ngokutsho kwe- Iziko lohlanga lwamatyala eRhulumente , ezi ntendelezo zibonise iziphumo ezithembisayo kumazwe amaninzi.
Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo azithathi indawo yenkqubo yenkundla jikelele; kunoko, zinika enye indlela enokuthi ikhokelele kwiziphumo ezingcono kubemi abathile. Zikwanceda ekunciphiseni ityala kwiinkundla eziqhelekileyo, zivumela ezo ntena ukuba zijolise ingqalelo kwimicimbi yesithethe. Noko ke, abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zinokuyila inkqubo eyahlukeneyo apho amalungelo angakhuselwanga ngendlela efanayo. Ukulinganisa umgangatho okhethekileyo kunye neyunifomu kulucelomngeni oluqhubekayo kwiijajidi.
Iinkqubo zeNkundla yeRhulumente: Isakhiwo esiBume
Kumazwe anjenge-United States, iKhanada, ne-Ostreliya, kukho iinkqubo ezimbini ezidibeneyo zenkundla: urhulumente (okanye iphondo) kunye nenkundla yephondo elimfutshane netyala elibandakanya imithetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko, kunye neembambano phakathi kwabemi okanye phakathi kwamazwe awahlukeneyo. Iinkundla zelizwe zinegunya elibanzi kwimibandela emininzi, kuquka umthetho wentsapho, impahla, izivumelwano, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho olawulwa ngurhulumente. Le nkqubo idibeneyo inokubangela ukuba kube nengxaki, njengoko maxa wambi ibandakanya umthetho worhulumente nowaseburhulumenteni.
Inkundla yelifa lesizwe ibonakalisa inkqubo yequmrhu lenkundla yephondo: iinkundla zesithili (ityala), iinkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. Iinkqubo zikarhulumente zinezintlu eziqhelekileyo ezinokubekwa kwithala elifanayo. Ityala ngamanye amaxesha lingabekwa nakweyiphi na indlela kuxhomekeke kwimibandela esemthethweni. Umzekelo, ukumangalelwa kwesivumelwano esilawulwa ngumthetho karhulumente kuyakuba senkundla yephondo ngaphandle kokuba kukho ukwahlukahlukana kobumi belizwe kunye nemali exanduva engaphaya kwama-$75,000 (R35 000), apho amaqela enokuthi akhethe inkundla yephondo.
Ukuqonda xa ityala lisiwa kwinkundla yenkundla karhulumente okanye karhulumente kubaluleke kakhulu. Iinkundla zoMasipala ziinkundla zolawulo olulinganiselweyo; zingawava kuphela amatyala agunyazisiweyo ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo karhulumente. Iinkundla zeli lizwe ziinkundla zolawulo jikelele kwaye zinokuva phantse naliphi na ityala elingagcinelwanga iinkundla zikarhulumente kuphela. Lo mahluko ufundiswa kwizikolo zomthetho njengesiseko solawulo lwaseMelika. U.S.I-webhsayithi ye-CRP [ inikeza ingcaciso ecacileyo yesakhiwo senkundla yenkundla yesizwe.
Enye ingxulumano engundoqo phakathi kwezi nkqubo zimbini yimfundiso yokungaququki, apho iinkundla zikarhulumente maxa wambi zingavumi ukuva ityala ukuze zivumele iinkundla zikarhulumente zigqibe imibandela yomthetho karhulumente. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States ingahlola izigqibo eziphakamileyo zenkundla ukuba zibandakanya umbuzo karhulumente. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente uhlala ungowona uphakamileyo kwingingqi yawo ngoxa uthobela ulawulo lukarhulumente.
Uhambo Lwetyala Ngeenkundla
Umzekelo wendlela isakhiwo senkundla esisebenza ngayo, qwalasela umzekelo oqhelekileyo: umntu wenzakala kwingozi yemoto aze adlulisele omnye umqhubi ngenxa yokungakhathali. Ityala lenkundla yetyala liqulunqwa kwinkundla yamatyala yasekuhlaleni. Inkundla icela ukufunyaniswa, ukuthuthwa, nokuvavanywa. Ukuba inkundla ephakamileyo yenkundla ifumana iziphumo zokonzakalisayo, ummangali angabhenela kwinkundla yetyala ephakathi, ephinda ihlole ingxelo yetyala. Ukuba inkundla ephakamileyo yenkundla igatya igatya ityala okanye iqinisekisa, ityala liphela ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa uphakamelo uphakanyiswe yinkundla yezomthetho, nto leyo enokuthi iphinde iphinde ihlole ingxelo yetyala.
Olu hambo lungathatha iminyaka. Iimeko ezininzi zihlala ixesha elide phambi kokuvavanywa okanye isibheno, kodwa ukunokwenzeka kweempembelelo zohlolo lwefuthe zihlawulwe. Imikhosi kufuneka ivavanye iindleko neengenelo zokuqhubeka ichazwa. Isakhiwo seenkundla ngoko sichaphazela hayi iziphumo zokugqibela kuphela kodwa nendlela yokuziphatha ngexesha lokulingwa. Inkqubo yenkundla esebenzayo kakuhle ikhuthaza ukuhlaliswa ngokunika izizinziso ezithembekileyo zohlalutyo oluthembekileyo.
Ukuba eli tyala libandakanya umGaqo-siseko, umGaqo-siseko wenkundla ephakamileyo yase-U.S. usengabheniswa kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Umzekelo, * Gideon v. Wainwright* (1963), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ithe amatyala kufuneka anikele isiluleko kubamangalelwa abagwebi abagwebi abagwetyiweyo kumatyala angekho mthethweni. Elo tyala laqala kwinkundla yephondo laseFlorida, ladlula kwinkqubo yesizwe ye-applate, laze laqukunjelwa ngenkqubo yesazi somthetho.
Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho Kwenkundla
Ukusuka kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni esingatha amatikiti eenqwelo-moya ukuya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo igqiba ukuba umthetho ungowasemthethweni, inkundla elawulayo ingumnqophiso womthetho. Inika indlela ecwangcisiweyo yokucombulula iimpikiswano, yokulungisa iimpazamo, nokuphuhlisa imigaqo esemthethweni. Umgangatho ngamnye unendima ecacileyo: iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zicombulula izibakala kwaye zisebenzisa umthetho kwityala ngalinye; iinkundla ezilawula umthetho ziqinisekisa ukuma okusesikweni neempazamo ezichanile; iinkundla eziphakamileyo zinikela ummiselo okokugqibela nokutolika amaxwebhu asisiseko.
Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo kunika amandla abantu ngabanye. Kubasiza bazi apho banokuzisa khona impikiswano, oko bamele bakulindele enkundleni, nendlela yokufuna ukubukezwa ukuba bakholelwa ukuba okusesikweni akwenziwanga. Kukwakhuthaza uxabiso ngejaji njengesebe elilinganayo likarhulumente. Inkqubo yenkundla eyomeleleyo, enezikhundla ezicacileyo nabagwebi abazizilawulayo, ibalulekile ekukhuseleni amalungelo nokuhlala bethembekile ebantwini.
Njengokuba iinkqubo zomthetho ziguquka, kufuneka ziqhelane nocelomngeni olutsha olufana nobugcisa, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi, nokutshintsha kwentlalo. Kodwa isiseko sokwakha – iinkundla zasekuhlaleni, iinkundla ezilawulayo, iinkundla eziphakamileyo – zisesona siseko sithembekileyo. Nokuba ungumfundi, okanye ngummi nje kuphela, ukuyiqonda le ndlela okusesikweni okusetyenziswa ngayo kwibutho labantu elikhululekileyo.