Ukwazisa: Ukwakhiwa Korhulumente Olinganiselweyo

Umgaqo wokuhlola nokulungelelana umi njengenye yezona zinto zihlala zihleli zikhuselekile ekusetyenzisweni kwegunya lezobupolitika. Ilungiselelwe ukuthintela naliphi na isebe likarhulumente ekulawuleni amanye, le nkqubo ihambisa igunya ngaphaya koorhulumente abahlukeneyo, ngalinye linamandla okuthintela izenzo ezishiyekileyo. Kubemi kunye nabafundi bolawulo olulinganayo, ukuqonda indlela uhlolo nolungelelwano olusebenzayo ekusebenzeni kwayo kuyimfuneko ngayo ukuqaphela indlela ulawulo lwedemokhrasi olulondoloza inkululeko, ukuphendula ityala, kunye nomthetho womthetho. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa imvelaphi embalini, iinkqubo zokwakha, iinkqubo zekhompyutha zokwenene eziqhubekayo, kunye nocelomngeni eziqhubekayo zenkqubo yokuhlola iMerika, ukunikela imbono ebanzi yomsebenzi wayo kulawulo lwale mihla.

Isiseko Sembali Nemfundiso

Impembelelo Yabacingi

Abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. bafumana ngamandla kwintanda-bulumko yezopolitiko ekhanyiselweyo, ingakumbi imibhalo kaBaron de Montesquieu. Kumsebenzi wakhe wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asibhozo. UMoya woMthetho , uMbutho weMithetho , uphikisa ukuba inkululeko ikhuseleke ngcono xa amandla karhulumente ehlulwe phakathi kwamasebe ahlukeneyo, i-lective, i-gracy, kunye ne-get. Walumkisa ukuba “xa umthetho kunye namandla aphezulu edityaniwe kumntu omnye, okanye kwiqumrhu elinye lejaji, ayinakukhululeka.” Le ngcamango ishukutyekelwe ngokunzulu ngabalawuli baseMerika abafumene ubuzwini bokulawula ulawulo oluphakathi lwe-British mona.

Amanye amanani okukhanyiselwa, njengoJohn Locke, anikela ngengcamango yesivumelwano sentlalo kunye nelungelo labantu lokubhukuqa urhulumente ocinezelayo. Iingcamango zikaLocke ngolwahlulo lwamagunya .

Indibano yomGaqo-siseko nokulalanisa okukhulu

Ngexesha leNdibano yePhiladelphia yowe-1787, abameli baphikisana ngendlela yokulinganisa urhulumente kunye norhulumente wesizwe, kwanendlela yokwabelana igunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu. ISicwangciso seVirginia sacebisa ukuba kubekho urhulumente wesizwe onamandla onendlu yowiso-mthetho ye-bidamaral, ngoxa iPlan yaseNew Jersey yayixhasa ukumelelwa kwesizwe esinye. Ukungavumelani okukhulu kwadala iNdlu yabameli esekelwe kubemi kunye neBhunga elinomelo elinomelo olulinganayo kwiphondo ngalinye. Le sakhiwo se-bibraral ngokwaso saba yi-indlela yangaphakathi yokuhlola ngaphakathi kwisebe lemithetho, ifuna ukuba omabini amagumbi avumelane ukuvumelana kwemithetho yesizwe phambi kokuba ithunyelwe kumongameli.

James Madison, odla ngokubizwa ngokuba “nguYise woMgaqo-siseko,” wachaza imfuneko yokuxilonga kunye nolungelelwano kuMphathi-mikhosi No... Wabhala ngodumo wathi, “Isikhundla kufuneka silwelwe ukulwa namabhongo.” Madison waphikisa ukuba ngokunika isebe ngalinye iindlela zokuxhathisa ukungenelela kwabanye, umGaqo-siseko uza kulondoloza inkululeko ngaphandle kokuthembela ngokupheleleyo kwisidima samagosa karhulumente. Le progata yamkela ukuba ubuchule bokuzibandakanya ngokwawo urhulumente.

Amasebe Amathathu: Amagunya, Iimbopheleleko Neembopheleleko

Isebe loMthetho (Ikomkhulu)

Isebe lowiso-mthetho, eliyilwe yiNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNdlu zoVavanyo, linembopheleleko eyintloko ekwenzeni imithetho. Inqaku I lomGaqo-siseko linika iNkqutyana igunya elibalulweyo, kuquka amandla erhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukulawula urhwebo lwamazwe, ukubhengeza imfazwe, nokuphakamisa imikhosi. Noko ke, la mandla avavanywa ngamasebe aphetheyo nagweba ngeendlela ezininzi:

  • IPresidentile translate: Umongameli angawuchasa umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga, nangona uninzi olubini-sithathu kuzo zombini iigumbi lungawukhupha uveto.
  • [[UMTL:0] Uhlolo lwe-judicial: Iinkundla zingabetha imithetho echasene nomGaqo-siseko.
  • Ukuphumeza okuthe kratya: Umongameli kunye namaqumrhu kazwelonke angachaza imithetho ngemigaqo, ngokunempumelelo ibumba indlela enyanzeliswa ngayo.

IBhunga likwanamandla alo okuhlola amanye amasebe. Lilawula uqingqo-mali, lingaqinisekisa okanye ligatye izivumelwano zobumongameli (iSanate), linamandla okugatya nokususa amagosa karhulumente, kuquka umongameli nabagwebi.

Isebe elinoLawulo oluPhezulu (umongameli kunye noManyano-mayela)

Isebe eliphetheyo, elikhokelwa ngumongameli, libekwa ityala lokunyanzelisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga. Umongameli ukhonza njengenkokeli-ntloko yemikhosi exhobileyo, eqhuba inkqubo yangaphandle, kwaye emisela abagwebi borhulumente kunye namalungu ekhabhathi. Kodwa umlawuli unyanzelwa ngu:

  • [[Umthetho:0] Ulawulo lolawulo lolawulo: Iikomiti ziphanda izenzo zempatho-mandla kwaye zingaphengulula amaxwebhu namangqina.
  • Isiqinisekiso se ```````'''''' isalathisi esingundoqo'' sifuna imvume yendlu yengqungquthela.
  • Uhlolo oluqulunqiweyo: Iinkundla zingaphelisa imiyalelo okanye izenzo ezilawulayo ezigqitha igunya lomgaqo-siseko.
  • Ingqungquthela ingasusa umongameli “kulwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu kunye nempazamo."

[[Umthetho:0] uxolelo oluphambili [ amandla, ngelixesha ebanzi, akanakusetyenziswa ukuphazamisa iziganeko zokungaceli okanye ukuxolela umntu kwizenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho zikarhulumente. Lo mlinganiselo uqinisekisa ukuba la mandla agcina igunya lawo elipheleleyo.

Isebe lezeejaji (INkundla ePhakamileyo neZinkundla eziPhantsi)

Isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho lize lichaze ukuba ingumgaqo-siseko. INkundla Ephakamileyo, emiselwe liGatya III, inegama lokugqibela elithetha ngeempikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni, kodwa amandla ayo avavanywa ngolu hlobo:

  • Inkqubo yeSindululo: izigwebo zityunjwa ngumongameli kwaye ziqinisekiswe yiBhunga leNtsimbi, ukuqinisekisa ukuphendulelwa kwezopolitiko.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Unikezelo: Abagwebi boManyano bangasuswa yiNgqungquthela.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukususwa kolawulo lwequmrhu: Congress ingazimisela iindidi zamatyala aviwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, nangona ingenakukuphelisa ngokupheleleyo ukulawula kwayo.
  • [[Ukwandiswa konyanzelo: 0] Uxhomekeko lonyanzelo: Ijaji ayinalo ingalo yayo yokunyanzelisa; ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukuqhuba imithetho yayo.

Kwakhona aBagwebi bazithintela ngeemfundiso ezifana nokuma, ukuvutha, nokuzingca, ezithintela iinkundla ukuba zingadluliseli iimbono zobuxoki okanye ukungenelela ngokungeyomfuneko kwiimpikiswano zezobupolitika.

Ubuchule Bokukhangela Nokulungelelana

Ingqwalasela yoMthetho kwiSebe eliphetheyo neSikolo

  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukukhupha: ivoti ezimbini- 3 kumagumbi omabini ingayiphelisa iveto engumongameli.
  • amandla engxowa-mali: iBhunga lilawula yonke inkcitho karhulumente, kuquka imivuzo yamagosa aphezulu nabagwebi. Ngokungaphazanyiswa ngemali, inokuthintela ngokunempumelelo imigaqo-nkqubo eliyichasayo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuqulunqa nokususwa: Indlu iyatyikitywa ngabaninzi; iNdlu yamabanjwa ngamabamba ngamaninzi amabini anesithathu. Le nkqubo isebenza koomongameli, oomongameli, nakuwo onke amagosa oluntu.
  • Isiqinisekiso seKhabhinethi: oonobhala beKhabhinethi, abagwebi besizwe (kuquka abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo), oothunywa benqanawa, kunye nabanye abamiselwe kumgangatho ophezulu bafuna ukuvunywa kweNtlanganiso.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukwahlulwa okutyhafileyo: izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe mazivunywe ngeentambo ezimbini-ntathu zeCandelo.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Uphatho lwegunya: iikomiti zeBhunga loMbutho zibamba iimvo, ii-asepoens, kwaye zinokunyanzela ubungqina obuvela kumagosa aphetheyo esebe.

Isebe elilawulayo lijonge amasebe asemthethweni nakwezeejaji

  • Amandla e-VEto: umongameli angawalahla amatyala, anyanzelise iKhomishini ukuba iphinde iphinde ijonge. Iveto ingangaphindwa, kodwa ifuna inkxaso enkulu.
  • Amandla okuMisela: Umongameli ubeka abagwebi besizwe, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo, ababumba ijaji kangangamashumi eminyaka.
  • Imiyalelo esebenzayo nezibhengezo: Ezi zikhombe isebe eliphetheyo ngendlela yokunyanzelisa imithetho, nangona ziphantsi kocelomngeni olusemthethweni.
  • Amandla eProton: Umongameli anganika ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho lukarhulumente, aphumeze ukuphelisa izigwebo zogwebo kwityala ngalinye.
  • igunya loMyaleli-oyintloko: Umongameli ulawula imisebenzi yomkhosi, kodwa iBhunga kufuneka libhengeze imfazwe kunye nemali efanelekileyo.

Ukuhlolisisa Amasebe Asemthethweni Nanemigaqo

  • [[NTLA:0] Uhlolo lwe-judicial: Iinkundla zingabetha imithetho (ityala okanye urhulumente) kunye nezenzo zegunya elichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lamiselwa kwi Barbury v. Madison [1803]).
  • Ukwenziwa kwemithetho: kweNkundla ichaza intsingiselo yomthetho, isoloko ilungisa iziphumo zenkqubo.
  • Ukujongwa kwemisebenzi yomaziko: iinkundla zoMasipala zingayibhukuqa imithetho yolawulo egqitha igunya lomthetho okanye echasene neemfuno zesithethe.
  • IiNkundla ze- Imposiso yeNkqutyana: zingakhupha imiyalelo evala izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu okanye imithetho elindele ulwahlulo lokugqibela.

Imizekelo Yembali Ebonisa Ukulungelelana Nokulungelelana

IScamegate yamanzi (19721974)

Umongameli uRichard Nixon wasebenzisa kakubi igunya, kuquka ukukhutshwa kokwaphulwa kwecandelo kwikomkhulu leKomiti yesizwe yeDemocratic, kwabangela ukubonakaliswa okuphawulekayo kwee-checks kunye nolungelelwano. IBhunga lasungula uphendlo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo (kwi-] United States v. Nixon, 1974) ngamxhesholo mnye wayalela umongameli ukuba akhuphe ushicilelo lwesandi, kunye neKomiti yeNdluvota yomthetho evota amanqaku evota intelo engosi. Ilungu elingulowo ujongenelo kuMhlalo, uNixon-offrentie. Le meko yabonisa amandla omthetho namasebe ejajinganiso ukuba aphendule umongameli womthetho xa ulawulo lwe-oomatilammeli be-ofisi be-ofisi be-ofisi bemithetho.

Uphando lukaMongameli uBill Clinton (1998-1999)

UMongameli Clinton wavunywa yiNdlu ngezityholo zokumangalelwa nokuthintelwa kokusesikweni okunxulumene nehlazo likaMonica Lewinsky. Noko ke, iNdlu yeeNtsimbi, ayizange imvalele, isilela kwinani elizii-3 ezimbini ezifunekayo. Oku kwabonisa ukuba ukungathobeli kungumgaqo wezopolitiko osemthethweni, iBhunga elisebenza njengovavanyo kwisigqibo seNdlu. Isiganeko sagxininisa umqobo ophezulu wokususa umongameli ohleliyo kunye nendima yembono kawonke wonke ekulungiseni iziphumo.

INkundla ePhakamileyo noMthetho weNkundla

Ku IFomatial Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukugunyaziswa komgaqo-siseko woMthetho woNtotho oPhawulayo njengerhafu, kodwa yalinganisela ulwandiso lweMedicaid. Esi sigqibo sabonisa uhlolo lwezomthetho olukwisenzo: iNkundla yatolika amandla okuhlawula irhafu xa inyanisa ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yeBhunga. Zombini isebe eliphethe (eliwuxhase umthetho) kwaye kwafuneka lilungise indlela yokuqonda amandla orhulumente asekelwe kwinkundla etyala.

Ukuthintelwa Kohambo Lomongameli uTrump (2017)

Emva kokuba uMongameli uDonald Trump ekhuphe imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo ethintela uhambo olusuka kumazwe amaninzi amaSilamsi, iinkundla zorhulumente zikhuphe imiqathango ethintelayo ukuphunyezwa. Iligati ekugqibeleni yafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, apho Trump v. Hawaii (2088) yaxhasa uhlobo oluhlaziyiweyo lovalelo. Olu hlolo lweziganeko lubonise indlela ijudicariary enokuthi ilibazise ngayo kwaye iphinde ibonise ukuba imiyalelo yegunya lempathiso, ngexesha elibonisa ukuba isikhulu sinokoyisa xa siqhuba inkqubo yezoshishino kumgaqo womGatho-siseko.

Ucelomngeni Lwale Mihla Kule nkqubo

Ukufikelela okungaphezulu kunye nesenzo esingasetyenziswayo

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, oomongameli baye basebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya eliphezulu, imemoredida, kunye nezibhengezo zokudlulisa iiKhomishini kwimibandela esukela ekufudukeni ukuya ekungcolisekeni. Nangona ezi zixhobo zivumelekile ngokomgaqo-siseko, abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi bawufinyeza umtya phakathi kokuphumeza imithetho kwaye bayenze. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawuyeka umva ```Ngomzekelo, ukubetha uMongameli Obama' izenzo zokufuduka [ku-[FLT:] kumazwe ahlukeneyo. Uthelekelelo lwesizwe .[FLT] 2016/16] kodwa eminye imisebenzi engasetyenziswangasese iye yasinda ekuhlolweni kwezomthetho. Ingxoxo “ngesigqebaintloko-", ethi umongameli ulawule ngokupheleleyo isebe eliphethe isebe, uyaqhubeka ukulungiselela intetho yezopolitiki.

Umkhosi weGrid

Ukubekwa kwezithuba kukwenze kwaba nzima ngakumbi ukuba iKhomishini iphumeze umthetho kwinkqubo yesithethe yekomiti. I-FILIBUsters kwiNtsimbi yeevoti eziyi-60, efuna ukuphelisa ingxoxo yama-60, iguqule umthetho omkhulu ube ziziganeko ezinqabileyo. Le ntambo idla ngokuqhubela oomongameli ukuba basebenze ngaphandle kwesizathu, kwaye inika igqiza amandla okugqiba imibuzo yenkqubo engenakuconjululwa ngabamisi-mthetho. Isiphumo sikukutshintsha umlinganiselo apho indima yesebe lemithetho-wisomthetho ithe buthathaka khona kwezinye ezimbini.

Ulawulo Olwandisiweyo

Amaqumrhu azimeleyo . afana ne-Ndebe Yokhuseleko, i-Secturalies and Exchange Commission, kunye neSebe lezeMpilo neSebe Lezempilo nezoluntu .[wield centralivements] Ukwenza ulawulo oluninzi kunye namandla okufunxa izithuba. La maqumrhu asebenza phantsi kwamagunya asuka kwiBhunga kodwa asebenza ngokuzilawula okuthi abagxeki babize isebe “lesine” likarhulumente. Isigqibo sakutshanje seNkundlalelo-mthetho West Virginia v. EPA [20]) amandla alinganiselweyo enkonzo egunya elivela kwiBhunganiso ecacileyo yezenzo ezingundoqo zolawulo, inika uphawu lokuhlola ulawulo.

Iimfazwe zokuQinisekisa iJaji ezikwaLawulwa

Ukuqinisekiswa kweejaji zikarhulumente kuye kwaba luvotelwa kakhulu, oku kuvumele oomongameli ukuba bamisele abagwebi abajongene nolibaziseko olude kunye nemiqobo ebanzi. Ukusetyenziswa “kokhetho lwenyukliya” ngo-2013 kunye no-2017 kunciphisa umqobo wokuqinisekisa iijaji ezingaphantsi kwenkundla kunye nabagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo abangama-60 kubavoti abangeyonto. Olu tshintsho luvumele oomongameli ukuba bamisele abagwebi abavumelana ngokusondeleyo nengqiqo yeqela labo, badele i-judicary yodumo lokungakhethi buso. Kwangaxesha linye, inkqubo yokuqinisekisa ihlala ingukhange kumphathi oyintloko, njengoko iNxatyi ye-Ntsimbi isenokungasayamla.

Imbono Yamazwe Ngamazwe Ngokuxinana Nokulungelelana

Ingcamango yokwahlula amagunya nokwakha iingqikelelo kurhulumente ayiyoyodwa eUnited States. Iinkqubo ezininzi zedemokhrasi ziquka imigaqo efanayo, nangona zisebenzisa iiplani ezahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, uBukumkani boMgaqo-siseko buxhomekeke kwinkqubo yepalamente apho isebe eliphetheyo (iKhabhinethi) likhutshwa kwindlu yowiso-mthetho, lenza ukwahlukana kube lula ukuvavanya amaxesha okuncitshiswa kwemibuzo, amavoti, kunye nokuhlola kwezogwebo ngenkundla ePhakamileyo (emiselwe ngo-2009).

ISiciko soMthetho we-Allemand with Law yenza “ivoti esisiseko yokungathembi ” efuna iBoundag ukuba ivumelane nenkokeli entsha phambi kokususa ekhoyo ngoku. "Ingqungquthela" yokungaguquguquki okubonwa kwezinye iinkqubo zepalamente. Inkundla yeQumrhu loMgaqo-siseko ingakwazi ukubetha imithetho kwaye idemokhrasi ayivaleli amaqela ezobupolitika asongela umgaqo wedemokhrasi. Iwebhthi yeNkundla ichaza amandla ayo amakhulu.

IFransi phantsi kweRiphabliki yesihlanu inenkqubo encinane ekwahlulelwa kuyo umongameli onyuliweyo ngqo onegunya kunye nomphathiswa onegunya kwipalamente. IBhunga lomGaqo-siseko lihlola imithetho ngaphambi kokuba isebenze, kwaye umongameli angayichitha iNdibano yesiZwe. Utshintsho olunjalo lubonisa ukuba uvavanyo nokulungelelana kunokwenzeka ngamalungiselelo ahlukeneyo olungiselelo.

Indima Yoluntu, Yoosomashishini Neyabemi

Iindlela zobuchule zokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente zibalulekile, kodwa zisebenza kakuhle xa zidityaniswe libutho lasekuhlaleni elisebenzayo. Uphando lwamafashoni, imibutho egadayo, kunye nokuqhankqalaza kukawonke-wonke kungatyhila ukuxhatshazwa kunye namagosa oxinzelelo ukuba athathe amanyathelo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iyazi ukuba umsebenzi wokucinezelela okukhululekileyo ukujonga amandla karhulumente, okungakumbi kwiNew York Times Co. v. United States

Iinkqubo zemfundo ze-bivic zinceda abemi balapho baqonde indlela urhulumente wabo asebenza ngayo kwaye kutheni behlola kunye nolungelelwano. Amaqela afana iziko lemfundo ye-CBICO linikela ubuncwane kubafundisi- ntsapho nabafundi. Ukusebenza kukhetho ngalunye `lonke] lomhlaba, urhulumente, kunye norhulumente , kuhlala yeyona ndlela ithe ngqo kubemi ukuphembelela ulungelelwano lwamandla. Xa abemi bexelelwe nokubhalisa, banokuqinisa inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko baze bagcine abameli babo benoxanduva xa ii-e-e-e-ewehlo zingaphumeleli.

Isiphumo: Ukulondoloza Inkululeko Ngeziko

Iingqiniba kunye nolungelelwano asiyonkqubo emileyo yemithetho; ayiyonkqubo esebenzayo, ephilayo eguqukayo nesizukulwana ngasinye. Uvavanyo lwaseMelika lubonise ukuba akukho sebe likarhulumente linokuthenjwa ngegunya elingenasiphelo. Ngokunika isebe ngalinye izixhobo zokuxhathisa ukuphambana nokutshintsha kwendlela abantu abanokuthatha inxaxheba, uMgaqo-siseko wadala isakhiwo esiqinileyo sozilawula ngokwawo. Kodwa eso siseko sifuna ugcino oluqhubekayo. Isakhiwo, impatho-mandla ye-polane, kunye nesenzo sokwahlulela sovavanyo yonke inkqubo, uqinisekisa imfuneko yokuhlala nokuhlala uphaphakamiso nokulungisa xa kuyimfuneko. Ukuqonda indlela ezihlola nokulinganisela nokusebenza kwayo. Nyhayiyo i-(iquipeps) kumele ukuba abemi bakhusele umgaqo wokuba amandla amele avinjwe, angadityaniswe.