Ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwana luye lwaba yindawo ephambili yoxinzeleleko ukususela ekusungulweni kwerepublic yaseMerika. IBhili yamaLungelo, eyaqinisekiswa ngo1791, yaqondwa ekuqaleni ukuba isebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, isebenza njengekhusi ekuchaseni ulawulo lobuzwilane noluntu. Oku kwashiya umsantsa obalulekileyo ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabantu, njengoko oorhulumente benokuthi ngokubhekiselele kumalungelo ngaphandle kokujongana nocelomngeni lwemithetho-siseko. Le mfundiso i-Incorporation Religionment Revolution yavela kumthetho-siseko owesizwe emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya ukusombulula le ngxaki. Ngendlela yenkulungwane yama-20, iNkundla ePhakakhulu yasebenzisa phantsekileyo onke amalungiselelo eeencwadi yamaLungelo kumazwe, ukutshintsha ngokusisiseko indawo ye-Melika mazwe kunye ne-Amerika. Ukuqonda le mfundiso ibalulekile kumalungelo eegromastmental.

Imvelaphi Yemfundiso Engokwahlukileyo

IAntebellum Ukuqonda: Barron v. Baltimore

Kwisiqingatha sokuqala senkulungwane ye-19, iNkundla yamaLungelo eSigqeba yamiselwa yisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo . Baltimore (1833). IJaji enguJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkundla edibeneyo, ibambelele kwelokuba iBhili yamaLungelo yayibhaliswe nje kuphela njengomthetho karhulumente wesizwe. Ityala lalibandakanye nomnini wesikhululo eBaltimorethi war wardelela isixeko ngokonakalisa impahla yakhe ngaphandle kokunikela intlawulo. Ngoxa isiHlulo sesihlanu salela ukuthatha impahla yangasese ukuze isetyenziswe ngokungesodwa, iNkundla yawisa umthetho ukuba lo mthetho awubophinikanga rhulumente okanye oorhulumente. Esi sigqibo sakhiwa ngokucacileyo: urhulumente wahlula urhulumente wamanyene norhulumente, kodwa wawahlula ngokwamalungelo orhulumente abo, njengoko babebona umgaqo womthetho wolawulo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezimilo Kweshumi Elinane Nokuguquka Kwebutho

Ukwenziwa kwale mithetho yoHlaziyo yeshumi elinesine yonyaka wewaka linamakhulu amane anesithandathu yayiyimpendulo engqalileyo kukungabikho kokusesikweni kwemfazwe yasemva kwe-Civil yaseMzantsi kunye nemfundiso . Isivumelwano safuna ukukhusela amakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa kumthetho wesizwe ochaseneyo. Icandelo elinye le-Ampectment liqulethe izindululo eziliqela ezingundoqo, kodwa amabini akwisiseko semfundiso ye-Incorporation:

  • Amalungelo okanye u-Immoni Claus: "Akukho Rhulumente ezakwenza okanye inyanzelise nawuphi na umthetho oza kumisa ibridge amalungelo okanye ukugoma kwabemi base-United States.
  • [[UMGAQO-MKQUBO] INkqubo Elindelekileyo ka-Claus:[ "... kwaye naliphi na iLizwe aliyi kuhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho."

Ekuqaleni, kwakholelwa ukuba amalungelo okanye ama-Immunian Claus ayakuba sisithuthi esiphambili sokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Noko ke, kwiNdlu yeNdlu ePhakamileyo iCases [1873]], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawanqumla kakhulu amathuba ale ngxelo, ibambe ukuba ikhusele kuphela iseti enciphileyo yamalungelo asuka kwingingqi yesizwe, njengasekunene kokucela iBhunga okanye ukufikelela kumazibuko embutho karhulumente. Oku kwaphumelela ukufunda iga yomthetho we-Incopegation Doctrition kangangenkulungwane. Ngokwesiphumo, iNkundla yajika kwiNkundla ye-Ust Claus njengomthombo wamalungelo angundoqo enkqubo echasene nesenzo sombuso.

Imfundiso Yendaleko Esekelwe Kwisiseko Samalungelo Ukusukela Kukhetho

Amalungelo Asisiseko Afikelela

Ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye19 kunye nasekuqaleni kweye-20, iNkundla yaqalisa ukuvelisa uvavanyo olusemthethweni lokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe. ukuphithana v. eNew Jersey [1988], iNkundla yaseka "amalungelo angokwengqondo". Imbambano yayingekokungaphosakele kusini na ilungiselelo elikhethekileyo lamaLungelo, kodwa nokuba urhulumente wayephule kwilungelo elibalulekileyo kangangokuba yayingu "imlit kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayalelweyo" oku kwanika imvume ebalulekileyo yokukhetha amalungelo afanele urhulumente.

IPalko v.Connecticut kunye ne-"Inkululeko eHlanganisiweyo"

IJaji Benjamin Cardozo imisela ngokusesikweni le ndlela yokukhetha. Ityala lephawu le- Palko v. Connecticut [1937]. UFrank Palka wazanywa ukubulala, wagwetywa ngetyala lokubulala, wagwetywa ngetyala lendoda etsha, wanikwa isigwebo sobomi. Inkundla ePhaka ePhaka yagwebayo yagweba isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, yaza yafumana ityala elitsha, apho uPalka wagwetywa ngetyala lokubulala kwazalelwa ukufa. Inkundla ephezulu yabonisa ukuba ityala lesibini laphula ilungelo eliphindaphindeneyo. Ityala leSigwebo yayingelilo esiphinda kabini "imposiso sesigwebo esisekelwe kwizithethe nakwisazela sethu esisekelwe kwisithethe nabantu bethu njengeli." Le nkundla ingumyalelo wokusetyenziswa kwenkululeko ekhethekileyo yenkululeko ekhutshelwe kuvulwe abanye abantu. Kodwa ikhundla lokungamele ukuvunywa.

Impelesi yokungavumelani

IJaji uHugo Black yaba yeyona iphambili ekugxekeni okuzinzileyo. Kuyo yonke indlela yakhe yokukhetha iNkundla, waphikisa ngelithi ukuHlaliswa kweMiqathango yeshumi elinesine kwakujolise ukusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo onke kumaphondo. "Uqululo lwakhe lonyakalonke" lwathi ingcamango iBakala le-Grast Procession Clause yeGrandment ye 1450 Dementementment ifake ukhuseleko lokuqala lweziphelo. Abamnyama babekholelwa ukuba "amalungelo angokwezinkcitho" anika uvavanyo olunamandla kakhulu kwaye ubungqina bembali buxhasa udibaniso olupheleleyo lwe-Dintellians. Ngoxa uLusalo olumnyama lungazange lufumane uninzi lwenkcazelo yakhe epheleleyo, ukungavumelaniseki kwakhe okunamandla kwiimeko ezifana [[FLct:0]. [FL.[FF1] [1947]

INkundla YaseWarren Nemvukelo Yezaphuli - mthetho

Unyulo lweNtloko yeJaji ePhakamileyo uWarren ngo1953 lwaphawula ukuguquka kwenkqubo yongquzulwano kwiSikolo samaNgeniso. INkundla yaseWarren yamkela imbono ebanzi yenkululeko yomntu ngamnye yaza yabutshintsha ngokucacileyo unxulumano phakathi kweenkqubo zomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho nomGaqo-mthetho wesizwe. Kungcelele lwezigqibo eziphawulayo ebudeni boo-1960, iNkuNkundla yafaka phantse zonke izikhuseli zolwaphulo-mthetho zeBhili yeQumrhu lamaLungelo. Eli xesha libizwa ngokuba yiNtloko yokuguqula iNqalo-mvume. Yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ulawulo lwamapolisa, iinkundla, iinkundla, neentolongo, iqinisekisa ukuba isiqinisekiso somgaqo-mthetho esisisiseko sisebenza nokuba kusini na umntu ohlala kusini na.

IBhili yamaLungelo ibhekiswa eUnited States: Uhlalutyo lwasekunene- Olulungileyo

Inkqubo yokudibanisa yayingesosiganeko esinye kodwa yayiyinkqubela-phambili ethe chu, ngetyala ngalinye. Ngezantsi kukonakala kwendlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo eye yasebenzisa ngayo ulungiselelo olungundoqo lweBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe.

Uhlaziyo Lokuqala: Intetho, Ushicilelo, Indibano Nonqulo

UHlaliso Lokuqala lwaba lulawulo lokuqala olungundoqo lokuququzelela. Getlow v. New York (1925), iNkundla yathi inkululeko yokuthetha yayililungelo elisisiseko elikhuselweyo kwilizwe elinomphetho weshumi elinesine. [[FLT:]] ne-metal v. Minnesota[[[FLT]][3] [193]] [1931] [iii-i-i-i-FT] yandisa le khusi kwinkululeko yokucofa, yawisa umthetho owawuvumela ukuvinjwa kwangaphambili komthetho wamaphephandaba. [[FLT] [4] [inani] [inani] [inani elingunxathelo oluphezulu] [indlela yokhuseleko] [indlela ekhululekileyokusetyenziswa kuncedo loncedo oluphezulu] [Fogn.[4]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokugcina Nokuthwala Izixhobo

UHlaliso Lwesibini lwalungolunye lwemiqathango yokugqibela yamaLungelo eBhili yamaLungelo ukuba afakwe ngokupheleleyo. Kwinkoliso yenkulungwane yama-20, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yalile ukusebenzisa uHlaziyo lwesibini kumaphondo. iUnited States v. iCruikshank[[FL:1] [186] [186] [18] kunye [[FLT]] [[12]] ne [[FLT]] [iiiiiindlela] yeNkangeleko] yeNkunga ye-e. [iiiiiiiiindlela] i-Illinoniagnony[[FLT][5] [ie] [iiiiiiiiiiiiiiindlela epheleleyo ye-Genethwele: [FT] [F] [ipul] [iiiigne] [ice] [iice-uthegos] inguquaful] ingu, inguquaful inguquaful'

UMthetho weSine: Ukufuna Nokuphelisa Ulwaphulo - mthetho

UHlaziyo lwesine lukhusela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula kwaye lufuna imvume yokuxhaswa ngokunokwenzeka. Indlela yokuququzelela oku kulungisa yayinde kwaye intsonkothile. Wolf v. Colorado[ (1949), iNkundla yabambelela ekubeni ilungelo elingundoqo lokukhululeka ukuphengulula ngokungenangqondo, kodwa yala ukusebenzisa umthetho wokususa ityala, kodwa i-'v'a''''''''''''' i-'a''''' yayinqabile ukunqanda unyango oluthizayo. [[FLT] Imilinganiselo ethintela ngokungekho mthethweni i-mthetho i-mthetho i-mthetho i-mouse'.[FFoct.] [i-FT.] [i-1961] I-mag.i-magnomeskelele iMaphu ekholidi ekhohlo yamapolisa asetyenziswa ngokungekho mthethweyokungeneyoku, iNkuphendukukayokukayoku

Uhlaziyo lwesihlanu: Ukuzichasa, ukuqhatha okuphindwe kabini, nokuthatha

Amalungiselelo angundoqo oMphetho-Mdatha afakwe ngamaxesha awahlukeneyo. Ukuthatha i-Claus ("Nomproprom]] [ukuthi kuthatyathwe ipropati yabucala ithathelwe ukusetyenziswa nguwonke-wonke, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo]] kwafakwa kwakudala njenge [, i-Chicago, iBurlington & Lamp; I-Tacago. [[12]] [12] Icandelo elikhoyo] [12] [12], i-aumthetho] [i-palglayinti] [iiiiiiiiiiii-fluni] [12] [iiindawo ebanzi] [i-FLT]) ifuna i-'uniced i-'evontsss. I-equams i-evoa i-ethentia i-'ethentia i-esaa i-ekhorive i-ance i-ance i-ance i-a

IsiHlanziso Sesithandathu: Amalungelo Afanelekileyo Etyala

[[5] Isalatha-sivundundu seSihlalo siqinisekisa intsalela yamalungelo enzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuvavanywa ngokusesikweni. La malungelo aquka ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwetyala elikhawulezayo nelingokwabantu bonke, ijaji engenamkhethe, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina, inkqubo enyanzelekileyo yokufumana amangqina, nelungelo lokunika isiluleko esisemthethweni. La malungelo aqukwa ngokuyintloko ngexesha leNkundla yaseWarren. [[FLT:]] [FOLT]] [12] Igadeon v.[FON] [FF:] [FFF:] [3] [196] [196] ingulowo umqondiso obalulekileyo, ukwandisa le ndlela yokunika icebiso, nokuba nelungelo eliphatheleleka ngayo, elichasene nelungelo elingundoqo lokulwa (iiiiiiiiiiiindawo elungele ukusetyenziswa kwetyala, i-F4]).[4] [F4] kunye netyala elingalunganga lokungalandust. [iast .[4]

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Umthetho weSinyuso seNkundla yesibhozo wesohlwayo senkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga wafakwa kuhlobo lweRobinson v. IKhalifoniya (1962). INkundla yawisa umthetho waseKhalifoniya owawenza walugqekelele ukukhotyokiswa zizothe, ibambe ukuba urhulumente akanakohlwaya umntu ngenxa yesikhundla okanye imeko ethile, ngokuchasene nesenzo esithile. Eli yayilixesha lokuqala iNkuNkundla yasebenzisa iSendh Amendslation kumaphondo, ivula ucango lwengxoxo yale mihla ngesohlwayo sokufa nezohlwayo, kuquka nokwalelwa kwebheja okugqithisileyo kunye nentlawulo olulungileyo.

Impembelelo Yomanyano Kwinkqubo Yezaphuli - mthetho Zesizwe

Imfundiso yeNkqutyana yaba nempembelelo enkulu kakhulu kwiinkqubo zomthetho karhulumente. Phambi koo1960, amajelo ayeneemvume eziphangaleleyo zokuqhuba iinkundla zawo, amasebe amapolisa, neentolongo njengoko ayebona kufanelekile. Ukuqulunqwa kweyesine, eyesihlanu, neyesibhozo yoMphetho-Mdalelo wamandla ekwalukileyo ewiswa imigaqo-siseko engqongqo yasekuhlaleni kwezi nkqubo. Amasebe amapolisa aseburhulumente kwafuneka athathe iinkqubo zokufumana imvume, anika uMiranda [, kunye nezokubhekisele kwiqhina lokugcina intolongo ukuze afumane ubungqina obubo bonke obuqhelekileyo. Iinkundla zikarhulumente kwakufuneka zinikele amagqwetha amahlwempu, ukuba agcine iimcimbiso-tyala ezingathi zingekho mthethweni.

Iimbambano Nezigxeko Zexesha Elizayo

Ubuzibulo Namalungelo Okanye Ulawulo Olungenamsebenzi

Nangona yamkeleka kakhulu, i-Incorporation Doctrine ihlala ingumbandela wengxoxo enzulu yophando nogwebo. Abagwebi abaninzi abangookrebe nabahlalutyi bomthetho baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza impazamo kwi iNdlu yeNdlu yeNdlu ye-'As'e'a'a''e'e'''e-'enganga,' ngokuyeka amalungelo afanelekileyo'o-Malungelwano' okanye ama-Immono's's''. UJaclare Thomas Thomas ebengumxhasi omkhulu weNkulwano ePhakal'a ephezulu ngenxa yokusebenzisa amalungelo okanye i-Immunion Claus e, kunokuba i-Baunions Claus e-Grace, njengesithu somforiso sokungena eGene. Ngexesha lokuxhasa kwakhe okuninzi [Foct:2]. [Foctaldt:] uG.[F.F.3], uJac.Thomalksmarri

Imfundiso Echasene Nomyalelo

Umgaqo ozinzileyo wokucelw'imposiso wokuqukumbela ngowokuba uthotho loburhulumente. Abaxhasi bolawulo lwesizwe baphikisa ngelithi urhulumente worhulumente, ngenkundla, ngokunempumelelo uyalela iindlu zowiso-mthetho kunye namagunya ombuso ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo ezithile. Umthetho "anti-yalelo", ucaciswe kwiimeko ezifana [[[FLT: 0]] Prequez v. United States[FLT] [1997] [1997] [[FLT]] kunye [FLT]] ne-New York York. United States[FLT] v.[FLT]] [3], uthintela urhulumente womthetho othe ngqo ukuba angakwazi ukunyanzela ukumiselwa okanye ukulawulwa kwenkqubo yolawulo lwamazwe. Noko ke, iinkundla ziye zathiwa kukuthobela amalungelo e-controlvencelventine. Ngexesha lomthetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somhlaba umthetho-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke

Ulungelelwaniso olubuya umva

Ukutshintsha ukwenziwa kwesivumelwano yimfundiso enxulumeneyo apho uHlaziyo lwe 144 lusetyenziswa ukusebenzisa amalungelo asuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Owona mzekelo waziwayo ngu [[FLT: 0] ukudibanisa. Irhorte [54], ityala elingunobangela Brown v. [[FLT:] [FLT]] Brown[FL:4] [FLT] uthintelo lwemeko-mome-outsporate- phantsi kwe-ulawulo phantsi kweMphetho we-Gradimetimesmesmess, [[FLT] i-evicel' elinganayo ingumbambo yokhuseleko olupheleleyo lwe-Genethi ye-Genethi ye-Genethi ye-Genetic Resol. I-Genearvolution ifumana uGenethi ye-Genetic i-" i-Genethi yeNxotyiso `T]

Ikamva Lokungahambelani

Imfundiso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ayiyiyo imfuno egqitywe ngokwembali kodwa ngummandla osebenzayo womthetho wezomgaqo-siseko. Kusekho amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo angafakwanga ngokupheleleyo. Umzekelo, ukhuseleko lweSithathu soHlaziyo oluchasene nekota yamajoni aluzange lufakwe ngqo yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, nangona kuqinisekiswe ukuba lusetyenziswe kakhulu. Umthetho wesiHlamkelo weSigqibo seSithathu soMgqibo sokwaHlathiso-mthetho ophezulu uhlala ungumda oqinileyo, umele ungasetyenziswa kumazwe [FFLT:0]. [FLT:] uHratado v. [[FLT.FLT.1] kunye nemithetho yayo ephakamileyo ingumthetho iyaqhubeka igwebo-mthetho olungileyo (184]), kwaye lomzekelo uhlala uhleli umthetho olungileyo. Umthetho wesibini uhlala ummandla oqinile, kunye neengcaphuzo zomthetho wamanani osemthethweni womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-onke.

Isiphelo

Imfundiso yeNkqutyana yeNkqutyana yenye yezona nkqubela zibalulekileyo zomGaqo-siseko kwimbali yaseMerika. Ngokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo ngoMphengululo we-14, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaguqula uhlobo lwe-operamentism yaseMelika kunye nokhuseleko lwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ukusuka kwizigqibo zeSigqibo seNkundla iWarren ukuya kwiingxoxo zale mihla ezimalunga noMgaqo-siseko kunye nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, ukudityaniswa kwamalungelo asisiseko kubangele ukulungelelaniso lwamandla phakathi kwamazwe norhulumente. Ngoxa iingxoxo ngentsingiselo yokuqala, urhulumente, kunye nemigaqo elawula iyaqhubeka, umgaqo ongundoqo wemfundiso uhlala ucacile: inkululeko eqinisekiswe ngabo bonke abemi, kungakhathaliseki ukuba baphi nalelo lwemeko abahlali belubiza ekhaya.

Ukufundwa ngokubhekele phaya ngendaleko yale mfundiso, [FLT]] Iqumrhu lolwazi kwiCornell Law School inikeza ushwankathelo olulungileyo. Iisigqibo seqhosha ezifana [[[FLT:]] Gitrow v. New York ku Oyz[FLT:] kunye nokuqukwa koMbeko wesibini ku McDonald v. Chicagoc] inikezela ngofikelelo olujo ngqo kwimithombo engundoqo eqhubeka isenza le ndawo ingumthetho.