EUnited States, ulwalamano phakathi komthetho wesizwe nowesizwe lunendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni inkqubo karhulumente. Ukuqonda indlela la manqanaba mabini karhulumente asebenzana anika ngayo ukuqonda okubalulekileyo kwiingxaki zokulawula kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho echaphazela ubomi babemi. Le mithetho ayiqhubeki kunye nemithetho ekhoyo; iyaguquka ngeenguqu zezopolitiko, iinkcazelo zenkundla, kunye nemfuno zoluntu. Icandelo lomkhosi, icandelo lomgaqo-siseko, livelisa amathuba amabini elungele ukuxoxwa kwemithetho yasekuhlaleni kunye neengxaki xa imithetho ingqubana. Eli nqaku linyusa iingcinga-nkqubo ezithile, lihlola iinkundla ezicacileyo, kwaye likhangele phambili ekuvezeni izicwangciso ezineenkcukacha, xa kusenziwa uhlaluzo olufanelekileyo, uvavanyo olufanelekileyo kubenzi benkqubo, abaqeqeqeshi, abaqeshi, nabahlali-mazwe.

Isakhiwo Somanyano

Umanyano luyinkqubo karhulumente apho igunya lihlulwa phakathi kwegunya elisembindini kunye namacandelo ezobupolitika afana namazwe. E-United States, le candelo lidala intsebenziswano enamandla phakathi kwemithetho yesizwe neyasesizwe, kwaye iye yaba ngumbandela wengxoxo ukususela ekusungulweni. Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko baye bayila inkqubo enokuthi ngabom ithintele ukubekwa kwamandla ezwe ngokwamaqela athile ngokukhetha amagunya athile ngelixa eemeko. Esi sakhiwo siye savumela umlinganiselo wovavanyo nolwamkelo kumgangatho welizwe, ngokufuthi esichazwa njengeenkqubo zedemokhrasithi zedemokhrasi. . [[FLT.1] IJajistatismenti] uLouismedia iphawula ukuba imekobume, ukuba abahlali bayo banokukhetha, besebenza njengomngcipheko wemali neenchulebhunga lokuzama ukuzama ukuzama imicimbi yezoqoqosho."

Indima yomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela isiseko solawulo lorhulumente, uchaza amagunya anikwe urhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ngeli xesha ebekela amanye amagunya. Isiseko sokulungisa, njengoMdathi weSihlalo weshumi, siqinisekisa ukuba amandla anganikwanga urhulumente wesizwe agcinelwe amatyala. Umzekelo [[FLT:] MCloch. Mary umisela ukuba umthetho wesizwe ngu-"Mthetho wezwe, kodwa kuphela xa urhulumente wesizwe esebenza phakathi kwamandla awo aphindaphindiweyo. [i-Ceclo] uqikelelo olu lwabiwo-mali lweBhangesi-mthetho [i-United States] [12] [12]

I-Daal Federalism iphikisana nemanyano

Ngokwembali, ulwalamano luye lwaqhekeka phakathi kwemithetho-siseko emibini yesizwe, apho imigangatho emibini karhulumente isebenza kwiibhotwe ezingafaniyo(nee-astyrensialism) kunye nolawulo lwamagunya orhulumente, apho asabelana khona. KwiRiphabliki yokuqala, uburhulumente obumabini bolawulo bulawula. Noko ke, iNew Develop esungulwe ekusebenzeni korhulumente womanyano, urhulumente olawulayo ebandakanyeke kakhulu kwimimandla efana nentlalontle, izibonelelo, kunye nokusebenza. Namhlanje, imigaqo emininzi ibandakanya igunya elilungeleleneyo, ngokunikwa inkxaso kunye nemithetho karhulumente. Umzekelo, iminyaka yokusela eneminyaka engama-21 yayinyanzelwe ngokuziimali ezinkongominye ezikhoyo ezigcina iminyaka esezantsi. Oku kuphazamisayo kuphuhlisa imigaqo-mthetho karhulumente.

Inkqubo Yomthetho

Inkqubo yowiso-mthetho kumanqanaba orhulumente nawomabini orhulumente ibandakanya amaqondo aliqela, kuquka ukudityaniswa, ukuphikisana, nokuvota kwimithetho ecetyisiweyo. Ukuqonda ezi nkqubo kubalulekile ukuqonda indlela ekwenziwa ngayo inkqubo kawonke-wonke. Ngoxa isakhiwo esibanzi sifana ne-(a) mali mayidlule zombini iigumbi kwaye iye kwigunya eliphetheyo (iinkcukacha zokohluka ngokwentsokothileyo, isantya, nokubonakala. Inkqubo karhulumente, enamalungu anokuvota, icotha ngokuduba, ifuna iikomiti ezibanzi, iindlebe, kunye neengxaki ze-processsss ezifana ne-ficialbuster kwiNdlu. Iindlu zolawulo zikarhulumente, ingakumbi ezincinane, maxa linokuhamba ngokukhawuleza, kodwa kwakhona zijongeneengxaki ezingaqhelekanga njengeenxalenye zexesha lokusebenza kunye nezithintelo.

Umthetho womanyano

Kumgangatho karhulumente, kusungulwa umthetho kwiNdlu yeeNdlu zabameli, equkelwe yiNdlu yabameli kunye neNdlu yeeNtsimbi. Umthetho kufuneka uvunyelwe ngamagumbi omabini uze utyikitywe nguMongameli ukuba ube ngumthetho. Le nkqubo iquka ikhokeli ekwikomiti, ii-odoli, iingxoxo zomgangatho, kunye nekomiti yengqungquthela yokulungisa ukungavisisani. I-modeli i-veto inokungachatshazelwa ngabaninzi abalishumi elinesithathu kuwo omabini amagumbi. Imithetho engundoqo efana ne-Cec - Cooc Aircuit Act, i-Social Sec, noMthetho we-Affordable Sectial Sect, kunye noMthetho wokunyamekela iziko-omfore. Umthetho kwakhona uphenjelwa ngokukhuthaza ukukhuthaza, iziko zolawulo, kunye nokwenza ulawulo lomthetho, nto leyo ephethe umthetho owenziwa kuwo omabini.

UMthetho weRhulumente

Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zesizwe zisebenza ngokufanayo, nesizwe ngasinye sinequmrhu laso lowiso-mthetho (kuphela iNebraska inendlu yowiso-mthetho engenazinyuko). Imithetho yesizwe ingahluka kakhulu, ibonakalisa iimfuno nexabiso elikhethekileyo labemi bazo. Umzekelo, iKhalifoniya isoloko ikhokela kwimigangatho yemeko-bume, ngelixa iTexas inemithetho eyahlukeneyo kunye nokuqhomfa. Iintlanganiso zemithetho yowiso-mthetho wesizwe ziyahluka ngobude; amanye amazwe adibana unyaka-onyaka, amanye engonyaka nje, amanye engonyaka nje embalwa. Abalawuli badla ngokuba namandla omgca-iveto (njengoMongameli), abavumela ukuba babethe imigaqo ethile. Inyathelo kunye nokuqulungela ii-mendo zomthetho ze-ontathelo zomthetho ze-mthetho ziyakwazi ukumisela imithetho engqibelelweni kumazwe amaninzi, engekho kwimithetho yezonyango. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwiinkalo eziphambili njengemicuba yerhafu yerhafu yerhafu.

Imimandla echaphazelayo

Igalelo phakathi komthetho wesizwe nowesizwe lichaphazela phantse yonke imimandla yenkqubo karhulumente. Amacandelwana alandelayo ahlola iindawo ezingundoqo apho le misebenzi iphambili ibalasele kakhulu: imfundo, unyango, umgaqo wemekobume, ukusetyenziswa nomsebenzi, umgwebo wolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nenkqubo yentlalo.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Inkqubo yemfundo yenye indawo apho imithetho karhulumente neyaseburhulumenteni idibana rhoqo. Urhulumente wesizwe unika inkxaso-mali kwaye umisela imigaqo-nkqubo, ingakumbi ingendlela yokusebenza kwePlementary and Secondal Education Act (ngoku iSikolo ngasinye Esiphumeleleyo), ngoxa amaphondo emisela iinkqubo kunye nemigangatho. ISebe lemfundo longamela iinkqubo zokufundisa lilawula uqeqesho lwabafundi kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu, kodwa amaqumrhu alawulayo emfundo alawula i-crediation, iimfuno zokudipola, kunye nemigaqo yezezemfundo yezemali. Iphondo lwezikolo zoluntu zoluntu zongeza umaleko wesithathu, ukwenza imfundo ehloniphekileyo, imicimbi esezantsi, imigaqo yabafundi eqeshicinekileyo. Izenzo zakutshanje, ezo zimisela imithetho yokufundisa inkcuthuso yentlalo-luvo okanye ukuvala iincwadi ezithile, indlela ummiselo wesizwe ozibeka ngayo umgaqo-mthetho wenkululeko yamakhaya kunye nenkululeko yezemfundo.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wezonyango

Inkqubo yokwandiswa kwempilo ibonisa ulwalamano oluntsonkothileyo phakathi kwemithetho yesizwe neyaserhulumente. I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) emiselwe imigangatho karhulumente, kodwa ichaza ukuba nesinye esibalulekileyo ekuzalisekiseni iinkqubo zazo zonyango. Ulwandiso lwe-ACAId ngumzekelo oyintloko: iNkundla ePhakamileyo elawula i-Motional Federation of Independent Business v. I-Sebelius (2012) [2012] urhulumente wesizwe akanakunyanzela ukuba andise uMdibedi, nto leyo ikhokelela ekunikezeleni ingxelo. Amanye amazwe ayamkela ulwando oluthe kratya, ngoxa amanye ala, edala izithuba. Ngokufanayo, ulawulo lwe-inshorensi ye-inshorensistiki oluchule yomthetho we-ogralitive. Ukusetyenziswa komthetho we-ogcipt.

Imithetho yokusingqongileyo

Inkqubo yokusingqongileyo isoloko ibonisa ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi korhulumente besizwe norhulumente. Amasebe afunyanisiweyo njenge-Evironmental Protection Agency amisela imimiselo esisiseko phantsi kwemithetho enjenge-Ceake Air Act ne-Ceake Water Act, ngoxa amazwe enokuthi amisele imilinganiselo engqongqo esekelwe kwiimfuno zasekuhlaleni. iKhalifoniya isebenzisa eli gunya, ukufumana izithintelo ze-EPA zokumisela imilinganiselo yezithuthi, amanye amazwe angayamkela iimfazwe ezisemthethweni. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwiimfazwe ezisemthethweni, ingakumbi xa urhulumente worhulumente ephantsi phantsi kwemithetho eyahlukeneyo efuna ukuphelisa ii-rapiters okanye imimiselo esemva. Ityala eliPhakamileyo [FLT] [FURosettssssssss, kunye nemigangatho ye-othenjiso , i-oktronezeze yookral, iyaqhubeka kwiimeko zomthetho ze-octive ezisezantsi zoomatiko zookrame.[Fople]

Imisebenzi

Umsebenzi nomthetho wemisebenzi yelizwe kunye nomthetho we-oir Labor Act imisela intlawulo encinane kunye nemithetho yomkhosi weSebe elisebenzayo, kodwa amazwe amaninzi nezixeko ziye zamisela imivuzo ephezulu. INational Labor Relations Act ilawula amalungelo omanyano, kodwa ichaza ukuba njengoWisconsin noMichigan igqithise "kumsebenzi ofanelekileyo" imithetho emisela amandla omanyano. UMthetho we-Occupational Safety and Health Act uvumela iinkqubo zawo zokuzikhusela ezivunyiweyo. Ukuphuma kwemithetho yemali nezonyango zivumela ukuba zisebenzise izicwangciso zokhuseleko ezivunyiweyo ezivunyiweyo. Iimeko zentsapho, ezigunyazwe ngumthetho karhulumente kuphela kubaqeqeshi abathile abasebenza ngokweNtsalo lweMicimbi yeMithetho yeNtsalo yezakhono, kunye noMthetho weMassadessauthsburg, njengookt zenza ulawulo olusemthethweni lwezentengo yezoshishino lwezenteko, njengoko kuboniswa kuvavanywa nakulwa kwezo lwabiwo lwezomthetho olusemthethweni.

Okusesikweni Nezenzo Zezaphuli - mthetho

Inkqubo yomthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho iphenjelelwa kakhulu yimithetho yorhulumente neyorhulumente. Ngoxa uninzi lwamatyala enziwa kumgangatho wesizwe, umthetho worhulumente ugquma amatyala athile karhulumente kunye nezenzo zombuso. Imfazwe yeziyobisi yavelisa igalelo elintsonkothileyo; umzekelo, isigwebo esiphantsi sesizwe secrack cocaine sasinzima kakhulu kunecocaine engumgubo, kodwa amazwe asabela ngeenguqu zawo. I-First Step Act (2088) kumgangatho worhulumente onenjongo yokunciphisa ukuncitshiswa kwe-rective kunye nokuyekelela ityala phakathi kwetyala le-mijelo ye-Rony Flod. Kutshanje, emva kokubulawa kwe-George Floyd, kudluliswe imithetho echaphazekileyo yokulungisa i-compacration, kodwa kufunwa iikhamera zequmbhunga, kwaye kusenziwa ulawulo lwezomthetho-othonga elizimeleyo.

Umgaqo - siseko Wentlalo: Ukuqhomfa Namalungelo Okuzala

Akukho mngeni ubonisa ngokucacileyo isigqibo sangoku solwalamano lwesizwe noluphezulu kunokuqhomfa. Kwiminyaka engamashumi, Roe v. Wade [1773]) waseka ilungelo lesizwe lokukhupha isisu, lokumisela imiqathango karhulumente. Noko ke, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo iDobs v. Jackson'S UQueqesho lwezempilo [ [2022] [2022]) [[FLT]] [[FLT]] Ro, ukubuyisela ummiselo wokuqhomfa kumazwe. IInterverston imele ukuyelela nokuphuma kwemithetho yezopolitiki. Oku kunokuthi kukhuselwe i-Aspowe (ukube i-Ascence) ngokusuka kwe-Allssion, i-Aunion, ngexesha eliphantsi koncedo lwezenterseburhulumente (eventi, i-All).

Ucelomngeni Neengxaki

Ulwalamano phakathi komthetho karhulumente nokarhulumente lungakhokelela kwimingeni neengxabano, ingakumbi xa imithetho iphikisana okanye xa amazwe efuna ukuphakamisa igunya lawo.

Ulingo Nemida Yamandla

Ukhupho lwemeko-ntle lwenzeka xa umthetho karhulumente udelela umthetho wesizwe phantsi kweSupremacy Claus. Oku kusenokubalula − xa umthetho karhulumente uqulathe icandelo elicacileyo elingumxholo (okanye umgaqo ochaziwe, xa imithetho karhulumente ibanzi kangangokuba imithetho karhulumente ayinakukwazi ukusebenza entsimini. Iingxaki zisuka ngokukodwa kwiindawo ezifana nokufuduka, apho amazwe aye azama ukumisela imithetho yokunyanzelisa (umzz., iArizona nkundla ziphakamileyo zeNkuNkundla ibangele ukuba ingqungquthela ibethelele phantsi. Ngokunjalo, iFederal Arbitation Act iyazinzisa imithetho emininzi elinganisela izivumelwano zoburhulumente. Amaqela e-Orquality adla ngokukhuthaza ukupheliswa kwemithetho yezomthetho, ngoxa ethetha ukuba afuna ukuguquka. Inkundla ephakamileyo ibonise ukuchaphazele ulawulo, i-mo loburhulumente obunye (ggrapt.[0]]], i-Fod.[2]]

Iingxaki Ezingokwasemthethweni Nendima Yeenkundla

Ucelomngeni olusemthethweni lusoloko luvela xa imithetho karhulumente ingqubana nemithetho karhulumente, ekhokelela kumatyala asenkundlani anokuyihlaziya imida karhulumente kunye namandla karhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko iquka iimpikiswano zorhulumente. Imizekelo ephawulekayo iquka Gonzales v. Ngokuchaseneyo, Raich (2005], eyathi yabambelela kwelokuba umthetho wesizwe ungalwamnqabela umyansi nokuba ulusebenzise unyango (kwamkeleka ngokulandelayo igosa imigaqo-mthetho ye-mthetho ne-robacracyer-meter inesitheze ithathe inyathelo elilinganiselwe kwelozwelo). Ngokuchasene noko, i-Rocrackerbar-Monga idla ngokunjalo ibonakalisa i-gxalabo lorhulumente.

Uvavanyo Lomzekelo

Uhlolisiso olungqalileyo lwetyala lubonisa impembelelo yokwenene yehlabathi yemithetho karhulumente yenkqubo kawonke-wonke nobomi bemihla ngemihla.

Ukwenziwa kwemithetho yeMali

I-Colorado neKhalifoniya i-Colorado ibhalise ngokusemthethweni umyadi wokuzonwabisa, nangona ingekho mthethweni kumgangatho wesizwe phantsi koMthetho oLawulweyo (Umthetho I). Oku kudala umgaqo onzima ongokwasemthethweni kwaye kuphakamisa imibuzo engokwasemthethweni, umthetho, ukugcinwa kwemali, kunye nerhafu. Ngaphezu kwama-20 emazwe ngoku anendawo esemthethweni yokuzihlaziya, enyanzelisa iSebe leJaji ukuba lixhomekeke kwiqhinga lobugqeba (iCole Meanderrandersmum, kodwa lizigcinile). I-SAFEBankling Act, idluliselwe kwindlu amaxesha amaninzi kodwa igcinwe kwiNsungulo, izinjongo zokuvumela ii-mali ukuba zisebenze amashishini ngaphandle kwesohlwayo. Ingxabano i-Rhuze i-modemite i-od i-odsting i-mone i-money ingue ingue ingulo ingulo ekho ityala elingulwe ngokufanelekileyo kodwa i-omele ityala elingungeneyo.

Imithetho yokulawula imipu

Ukulawulwa kwemipu yemipu yenye indawo enemiqathango engqongqo kunaleyo yesizwe. UMthetho woKhuselo lweMidlalo yoMkhosi woKhuselo lweMkhosi woMkhosi (1993) wamiselwa ukuqinisekisa okungasemva kwesizwe, kodwa uKhuselo loMgaqo-siseko wowango ka-2005 oLawulweyo kwi-Acts Act lunika ukuthintelwa kwemiqathango yokuxhobisa abenzi bezixhobo. Ama-Stadown, iNew York, kunye ne-Illinoninois imisele "iflegi eqinile" (imiyalelo eyingozi yokhuseleko lwezikhuselo zezixhobo), ukuvalela ukuhlasela izixhobo, kunye nokuhlola imvelaphi ebanzi, ngelixa abanye beye bagqithise i-"imithetho ethintela ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha yemiqatha yemithetho yomthetho-Atholo-Mthethweni. Isigqibo seNkuqwalasela umgaqo-mthetho weNkuphembeleko yesibini [FLD, kodwa umgaqo-Rogray) kodwa uchaza ngokuvusele umgaqo-ophumo-yo, umgaqo-ondo-ondo-

Inkcubeko eNyanga

Ukunyanzeliswa kolawulo lokuhlalisana kungumsebenzi oyintloko karhulumente, kodwa amazwana aqhube imithetho ebhekisa kuyo. Amanye amazwe, njengoKhalifoniya kunye no-Oregon, anemithetho "yokungatyunjwa" elawula intsebenziswano yasekuhlaleni namagunya okungena equleni, icaphula ukhuseleko noluntu. Eminye, njengeTexas neFlorida, igunyaze intsebenziswano kwaye idlulise imithetho yokusebenza kwingcwele. Ulawulo lweTrump luye lwayinyanzelela iKhalifoni, nto leyo ekhokelela kwiziphumo ezidityanisiweyo. Ulawulo lwe-Biden luye lwaphelisa uninzi lwaloo matyala kodwa luyaqhubeka lujonge imingeni yomda wayo. Le meko ibonisa indlela umthetho wesizwe okwazi ngayo ukuqhuba okanye ukuqinisekisa ulawulo lorhulumente, nendlela ulungelelaniso oluhambelana ngayo ulawulo nemithetho nemithetho-ofisi yolawulo.

Ikamva Lomthetho Womanyano NowasebuRhulumenteni

Njengoko ibutho liguquka, ulwalamano phakathi komthetho karhulumente nokarhulumente luza kuqhubeka luvavanywa. Iingxaki ezifana nokutshintsha kwemozulu, unyango, ubulungisa bentlalo, ubugcisa, kunye nomgaqo we-Al ziza kufuna intsebenziswano kunye nonxibelelwano phakathi kwamanqanaba amabini karhulumente. I-COVID-19 izalathiso zandisa imikhwa emininzi, kuquka umsebenzi okude, obangela ukuba ukwanda kwemithetho yerhafu yesizwe ikhokelele kwimiqathango ye-oventi yorhulumente, ukutyhalela amaphondo ekuthatheleni isikhokelo kwimiqathango yemithetho-$okanye ukulwa ulawulo lwamagunya.

Ukukhula Kwemikhwa Ekhoyo Kumanyano

Intsingiselo edibanisayo ibonisa ukufunwa okukhulayo kolwandiso lwemfundo yomgangatho karhulumente, njengoko amazwana ezama imigaqo-nkqubo enokuphembelela umthetho karhulumente. Oku kubonakala ngokukhethekileyo kwi-data (iCalifornia's CCPA njengemodeli kwamanye amazwe kunye nomthetho karhulumente), i-net (imithetho ekhoyo emva kweFC repeal), kunye nonyuko oluncinane. Inani elikhulayo lenyathelo lobukhwetha livumela ukubandakanyeka okuthe ngqo kwemimimizalwana, ukudlula kwezindlu zomthetho zikarhulumente. Kodwa, izigqibo eziphambili zeNkulawula urhulumente zihlala zikho ukunyanzela amandla karhulumente (ukungapheli ngemibuzo) anokuqhubeka ekwazi ukuqhuba amatyala, ngelinye indlela ekufuneka anyuke ngayo. Imeko yemozulu ingavumela ukumanyika kwe-manyeneyo ne-ogneatmonea, kodwa izakuzalisekisa ukusetyenziswa kwemeko yexesha elizayo.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda impembelelo yomthetho karhulumente worhulumente wombutho. Kubalulekile kubafundisi-mfundo, kubafundi, nakubemi. Ngokuqonda ubuntsonkotha bolu lwalamano, abantu banokubandakanyeka ngcono kwinkqubo yezopolitiko baze bakhuthaze imigaqo esebenzayo ethetha ngeemfuno zoluntu lwabo. Ulwahlulo lwamandla asingomgaqo-siseko nje ongaziwayo; ubumba umgangatho ofihlakeleyo; ubumbanisa enoba umguli unokukwazi ukuqhomfa, nokuba ishishini linokusebenza kwiintambo zikarhulumente, okanye enoba imfundo yomfundi ibonakalisa imilinganiselo yasekuhlaleni. Umanyano lwemfundo lunika zombini ubuchule kunye nokuguquguquka kwemithetho elawula iMelika. Njengoko i-Kennedysdys ibhala kwi-[Ft:0] v [FLT]., (2011], urhulumente wesizwe u-"uzwelonke-Genestism"-omatiko-odwa ukuba afumane ulawulo lwe-Ordemis ."Genegalelo lwamation (2010)