Table of Contents
Ukuqonda Inkqubo Elindelekileyo: Ukhokelo Olunetyala Kumalungelo Akho OmGaqo-siseko
Inkqubo efanelekileyo yeyona nkqubo isisiseko yemigaqo yomthetho kwidemokhrasi yaseMerika, esebenza njengenkuselo eqatha ekhusela abantu ekuphathweni ngokungekho ngqiqweni nangokungekho sikweni ngamagunya karhulumente. Esi siqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko siqinisekisa ukuba wonke umntu ufumana iinkqubo zobulungisa kunye nokuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho ngaphambi kokuba ahluthwe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Nokuba ujongene nezityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho, uqhuba iingxoxo zolawulo, okanye uqhubela phambili iingxoxo zoburhulumente, ukuqonda inkqubo efanelekileyo kukunceda ukuba uqaphele amalungelo akho kunye nemigaqo engomgaqo-mvume ekhoyo njengommi.
Ingcamango yenkqubo efanelekileyo iye yavela ukutyhubela iinkulungwane, ilandela imvelaphi yayo ibuyela emva kwiMagna Carta ka-1215, kwaye iye yagxininiswa ngokunzulu kwinkqubo yomthetho waseMerika. Namhlanje, ichaphazela phantse zonke iingxoxo phakathi kwabemi norhulumente, ukusuka ekunqanyulweni kweenqwelo-mafutha ukuya ekumangalelweni kwamatyala, ukusuka ekuvinyweni kwezaphuli-mthetho zesikolo ukuya ekuxhuzumeni kwempahla. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luza kuhlola iintrications zenkqubo efanelekileyo, iziseko ezingokwembali, izicelo ezisebenzisekayo, kwaye isizathu sokuba iqhubeke ibalulekile ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kwibutho lanamhlanje.
Yiyiphi inkqubela efanelekileyo? Isiseko somGaqo-siseko
Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifakwe kumGaqo-siseko waseUnited States ngamalungiselelo amabini ahlukeneyo kodwa anxulumeneyo: uHlaziyo lwesihlanu kunye noHlaziyo lweMimiselo yeSine. IsiHlaliso sesihlanu, sagunyaziswa ngowe-1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo, sithi akukho mntu uya "kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Eli lungiselelo lisebenza ngokungqalileyo kwizenzo ezithatyathwe ngurhulumente.
IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1868 emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, siqulethe ulwimi oluphantse lufane kodwa sisebenza kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Esi sigqibo sivakalisa ukuba akukho rhulumente uya "kukhupha nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Sidityanisiwe, la malungiselelo asemthethweni aqinisekisa ukuba onke amacandelo karhulumente amele ahlonele ngokusesikweni xa izenzo zawo zichaphazela amalungelo omntu ngamnye.
Enyanzelweni yayo, inkqubo efunekayo, kufuneka urhulumente alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo xa esenza izigqibo ezichaphazela amalungelo omntu okanye inkululeko. Oku kuquka ukunikela isaziso esaneleyo seziganeko, ithuba lokuviwa, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina neempikiswano, nesigqibo esenziwe ngumenzi wesigqibo ongakhethiyo. Iinkqubo ezifunekayo ziyahlukahluka kuye kwindlela umsebenzi karhulumente kunye nezilangazelelo ezisemngciphekweni, kodwa umgaqo ophantsi ohlala uhleli: okusesikweni makubekho kuzo zonke iinkqubano zorhulumente nabantu ngabanye.
Ukuguquka Kwembali Kwenkqubo
Ingcamango yenkqubo efunekayo inemvelaphi enzulu yembali esusela kude ngaphaya komthetho-siseko waseMerika. Umgaqo ungagcinwa emva kwiMagna Carta, uxwebhu lwembali yesiNgesi olwatyikitywa nguKumkani uJohn ngo1215, eyaseka ukuba kwanokumkani kufuneka azihlonele iinkqubo ezithile ezisemthethweni kwaye ayinakukwazi ukuwahlutha ngokusemthethweni amalungelo abo. Isithembiso sikaMagna Carta sokuba "akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kuthinjwa okanye afakwe entolongweni, okanye ahlulwe amalungelo akhe okanye impahla... ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wabalinga begxam okanye umthetho welizwe" sibekwe isiseko sokhuseleko lwangoku.
Umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi waphuhlisa ezi zixhobo zokhuseleko kwiinkulungwane ezalandelayo, umisela imigaqo-nkqubo ekhuselekileyo eyaziswa namarhamncwa e-coloni eMelika. Xa abaseki bomGaqo-siseko babhalisa umGaqo-siseko, bakuqonda ukubaluleka kokukhusela abemi kurhulumente abaphangi kwaye baquka inkqubela efunekayo yokuziqinisekisa ngeBhili yamaLungelo. Noko ke, ukukhusela komGaqo-siseko kwantla okusebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, kushiya amazwe akhululekileyo ukuseka iinkqubo zawo.
Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine we-1868 kwaphawula ixesha lokutshintsha komthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ngapha koko kwandisa inkqubela-nkqubo efunekayo yokhuseleko kwizenzo zikarhulumente, ingqwalaselo yaba sisithuthi esathi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe "ifake" uninzi lweSikolo samaLungelo sokukhusela amazwe. Le nkqubo yokuqulunqa amalungelo asisiseko afana nenkululeko yokuthetha, ilungelo lokucebisa, kunye nokukhusela ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweqweni kweemeko ngoku kusebenza kurhulumente nakorhulumente abasekuhlaleni ngoku ngoMganiseko we-Gradiso-Gradiso-Geneth Clasko ka-Classia.
Inkqubo Elindelekileyo: Ukulungiselela Imigaqo Ebonisa Ubulungisa
Inkqubo efunekayo yenkcazelo igxininisa kubulungisa benkqubo ezisetyenziswayo xa urhulumente ethatha inyathelo elichaphazela ubomi bomntu, inkululeko, okanye izilangazelelo zempahla. Le nkalo yenkqubo efunekayo ibuza umbuzo othi: "Ngaba le nkqubo isesikweni?" kunokuba ihlole ukuba urhulumente unalo na igunya lokusebenza kwindawo yokuqala. Iinkqubo ezizizo ezifunekayo zixhomekeke kwiimeko, kodwa iziqalelo ezithile zisebenza jikelele ngaphaya komongo owahlukileyo.
Uvavanyo lweMathews v. Eldridge
Iinkundla zisebenzisa uvavanyo lokulinganisela olumiselwe kwityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo . AmaMathews v. Elditridge (16) ukugqiba ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo efunekayo kwimeko ethile. Olu vavanyo lunobunzima obuthathu: okokuqala, inzala yabucala eza kuchaphazeleka ngesenzo sikarhulumente; okwesibini, umngcipheko wokuncitshiswa kwentengiso ephosakeleyo ngemiqathango esetyenziswayo kunye nexabiso elifanelekileyo lemiqathango eyongezelelweyo okanye elisisibambi sokhuseleko; kunye nelesithathu, nzala karhulumente, kuquka inzala yento enzima kunye nemithwalo yolawulo eyongezelelekileyo eza kuqukwayo.
Le ndlela ibhetyebhetye iyaqonda ukuba iimeko ezahlukeneyo zifuna amaqondo ahlukeneyo okhuseleko lwengcaciso. Umzekelo, ukuvavanywa kwetyala apho inkululeko yomntu isengozini kufuna iinkqubo ezibanzi eziquka ilungelo lokucebisa, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina, ubungqina obungaphaya kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni, kunye nokuvavanywa kwetyala. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, umfundi ojongene nokugxothwa kancinane kwisikolo sikawonke-wonke ufuna isaziso kunye nethuba elithile lokuviwa, kodwa hayi ukuva okupheleleyo okungokomthetho.
Izinto Ezingundoqo Zenkqubo Elindelekileyo
Ngelixesha iimfuno ezithile zohluka, inkqubo yokuyila iquka iziqalelo eziliqela. ilungu lokuqala elibalulekileyo (iindidividids) kufuneka ifumane ulwazi olwaneleyo malunga nesenzo sikarhulumente esithatyathwayo. Eli nqaku kufuneka libalwe ngokufanelekileyo ukwazisa umntu ngeziphumo zento kwaye linikezele iinkcukacha ezaneleyo malunga nendalo yomsebenzi, igunya elingokwasemthethweni layo, kunye nexesha nendawo yayo nayiphi na indawo yokuva.
[[FLT: 0] I-Opportiny ezakuvawa [ imela elinye isiseko sesiseko senkqubo efunekayo yokulungisa. Phambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe umntu othile womdla okhuselekileyo, loo mntu kufuneka ngokubanzi abe nethuba lokunikela icala lakhe lebali. Ixesha leli thuba libalulekile libalulekile, kufuneka livele phambi kokunqandwa, nangona iimeko zikaxakeka okanye apho izilangazelelo zikarhulumente ezibalulekileyo zisemthini, ukuva okukhawulezileyo kwecala lokuposa-deprifini kunganele.
Umenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi bucala ubalulekile ukuqinisekisa okusesikweni. Umntu okanye umzimba owenza isigqibo kufuneka abe ngoondilele kwaye angabi namkhethe, ngaphandle kweqhina lobuqu okanye lemali kwisiphumo. Oku kufunekayo kuthintela iimpikiswano zenzala kwaye kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo zisekelwe kwizibakala nakumthetho kunokuba zisekelwe kwiminqweno yobuqu okanye kwikhethe.
Elungeni ukunikela ubungqina kunye neempikiswano uvumela abantu ukuba baxhase indawo yabo ngolwazi olunxulumeneyo. Ngokuxhomekeke kumongo, oku kungaquka ilungelo lokubiza amangqina, ukwazisa amaxwebhu, amangqina aphikisanayo, kwaye wenze iimpikiswano ezisemthethweni. Umlinganiselo wala malungelo uyahluka ngokwee- Mathes v. Eldridge uvavanyo olulungeleleneyo.
Ilungile ukucebisa kwiimeko ezithile, ingakumbi kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho apho ukuvalelwa kunokwenzeka khona. UHlaliso lweSithandathu luqinisekisa ilungelo lokumela ngokusemthethweni kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba abamangalelwa abamangalelwa kufuneka banikwe isiluleko ngendleko karhulumente. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, akukho lungelo lomGaqo-siseko ukucebisa okumiselweyo, nangona abantu benokuqesha amagqwetha abo.
Inkqubo Engagqibekanga Efunekayo: Ukukhusela Amalungelo Asisiseko
Ngoxa inkqubo efunekayo yokuchaza igxininisa kubulungisa beenkqubo zikarhulumente, inkqubo efunekayo ephantsi ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleleni kukarhulumente kungakhathaliseki ukuba iinkqubo zifanelekile kangakanani na. Le mfundiso iyabuza: "Ngaba urhulumente unegunya lokuthabatha esi senzo konke konke? kunokuba ahlolisise nje ukuba iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zilandelwe kusini na.
Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko yenye yeenkalo ezithandabuzekayo zomthetho-siseko, njengokuba kufuneka iinkundla zichaze ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo asisiseko kangangokuba afanelwe lukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko nangona engakhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko. INkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukuba i-Sed Procestion Claus eClaus ikhusela kungekuphela nje loo malungelo abekwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo kodwa kwakhona amalungelo asisiseko angacaciswenga ngu "okwamkeleka kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayalelwayo" okanye "esekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sesizwe."
Amalungelo Ezoqoqosho Nexesha Lezinto Ezingalawulekiyo
Imbali yenkqubo encinci efunekayo iquka ixesha lempikiswano eyaziwa njengexesha leLochner, elibizwa emva kwetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-905 [[FT:0]] Lochner v. eNew York. Ngeli xesha, eliqhubekeke ngokususela koo1890 ukuya koo1930, iNkundla yasebenzisa inkqubo esezantsi efuna ukubetha imithetho yezoqoqosho emininzi, kuquka imithetho encinane yemivuzo, imithetho epheleleyo yeyure, kunye nezinye izindululo zenkqubela phambili. Inkundla yayibambe ukuba le mithetho ichasene nelungelo "Inkululeko yesivumelwano"."
Le ndlela yabangela ukugxekwa okunzima ngenxa yokuvumela abagwebi abangakhethwanga ukuba bathabathe indawo yezono zabo zezoqoqosho kwabo boowiso-mthetho abanyuliweyo. INkundla ekugqibeleni yayeka ukusetyenziswa ngogonyamelo kwenkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela amalungelo ezoqoqosho, kwaye ukususela ngowe - 1937, iNkundla ibisoloko ikulungele ukuthobela imigwebo yemithetho engokwasekwezoqoqosho, isebenzisa kuphela "ukubekwa" kwesiseko esisezantsi" ekuhloleni imithetho enjalo.
Inkqubo Elindelekileyo Yale Mihla: Inkululeko Nento Efihlakeleyo
Ngeli xesha iNkundla yarhoxa ekukhuseleni amalungelo ezoqoqosho kwinkqubo encinci efunekayo, yaqalisa ukusebenzisa le mfundiso ukukhusela inkululeko yobuqu namalungelo obuqu. Le ndlela yale mihla yokuzibophelela ingunozala iyazi ukuba kunelungelo elininzi elisisiseko, kuquka ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokufumana abantwana, ilungelo lokukhokelwa kwemfundo nokukhuliswa kwabantwana, ilungelo lokuhlala uthe tye, ilungelo lokuhlala uthe tye, kwanelungelo lokufumana ingqibelelo emzimbeni, kunye nelungelo lokuzibophelela kwizigqibo zobuqu ezinzulu.
Amatyala okuphawula umhlaba amisele imizekelo ebalulekileyo kulo mmandla. Griswold v.Connecticut[[FL:1] (65) yamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuzimela umlomo kwimeko-bume yokusebenzisa izibini ezitshatileyo ukuthintela ukukhawula. [[FLT:]]] Virginia [1967]] [1967]) yabetha imithetho enqabela umtshato we-lini. [[FLT:] [FLT] [12] r[FLT][5][5] [7][3] [4] [7] [4] i-19] i-patrogsss jog [edevFFF] eding.[3]
Xa urhulumente echasa ilungelo elisisiseko elikhuselwe yinkqubo ephantsi, iinkundla zisebenzisa "uhlalutyo lwecandelo," olona mgangatho ufunekayo wohlalutyo lomthetho. Phantsi kwalo mgangatho, urhulumente kufuneka abonise ukuba isenzo sakhe siyimfuneko ukufikelela umdla karhulumente onyanzelisayo kwaye usebenzisa iindlela ezincinci ezingqongqo. Lo mqobo uphezulu ukwenza kube nzima kakhulu ngorhulumente ukuthethelela imiqathango kumalungelo asisiseko.
Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Kwezaphuli - mthetho
Izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho zimela umongo apho iinkqubo zokhuseleko zininzi khona kwaye zikhula kakuhle. Izithintelo kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho.) Ngokukoko ziquka ukuphulukana nenkululeko ngokubanjwa okanye kwanokulahlekelwa ubomi ngesohlwayo sentambo."Imeko yezokhuseleko oluphezulu. UmGaqo-siseko unikela ukhuseleko olukhethekileyo kubamangalelwa, abaninzi babo abaqondwa njengamalungu enkqubo efanelekileyo.
Amalungelo enkqubo alindelekileyo angaphambili
Ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo luqala kumanqanaba okuqala ophando lolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye luyaqhubeka kuyo yonke inkqubo. Ukhuseleko loMphengululo wesine ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni lukhusela ukungenelela kwamapolisa okungekho ngqiqweni kwaye lufuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo sophando olukhulu. UMthetho-wesihlanu wokuLandlwa ukhusela abantu ekunyanzelweni ukuzingqina ngokwabo, ukuvelisa izilumkiso ezidumileyo "Miranda" ekumele ukuba amapolisa azinike phambi kokuncina kwelungelo.
Emva kokuba uvalelwe, inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukumiswa ngokukhawuleza kwetyala elilindelekileyo. Abameli kufuneka baxelelwe ngezityholo abamangalelwa ngazo ngomgwebo osesikweni okanye ulwazi. UMthetho wokuHlaziya weSithandathu uqinisekisa ilungelo lokunika isiluleko, uqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa banolwazi olusemthethweni olunoncedo ekuqhubeni phambili inkqubo yobulungisa obuntsonkothileyo. Abo bangakwaziyo ukuhlawula igqwetha, urhulumente kufuneka banikezele omnye ngaphandle kwexabiso, njengoko kumiselwe kwimeko yophawu Gideon v. Wainwright [1963]
Ilungelo lokubophelela ibheyile kwiimeko ezininzi livumela abamangalelwa bahlale bekhululekile ekulindeleni ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, nangona iinkundla zingamisela ii-apply okanye zimisela iimfuno zokuqinisekisa ukubonakala ekuchotshelweni nokukhusela ukhuseleko lukawonke-wonke. Ibheyile egqithisileyo iyalelwa yi-Sength Amendment. Inkqubo efunekayo kwakhona ifuna ukuba abatshutshisi batyhile ubungqina bokucaphula. /ukungaxeli-bucala okungangqina ukuba ummangalelwa akanatyala, njengoko kuqinisekiwe Brady v. Maryland (1963).).
Amalungelo Okumangalelwa Nokhuseleko
Ityala ngokwalo lijikelezwe lukhuseleko oluninzi olufanelekileyo. IsiHlanziso seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nangokunguwonke wonke, sithintela ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga ngaphandle kwesigqibo nokuqinisekisa ukuba ukuvavanywa kwetyala lisebenza ngokusesikweni. Ilungelo lokuvavanywa limgwebi ofana nomnye ongakhethi buso linikela uphando ngegunya likarhulumente ngokufuna ukuba abemi abaqhelekileyo, kungekhona amagosa karhulumente, bavume ukuba ummangalelwa unetyala.
Abameli banelungelo lokujamelana nabo kunye namangqina achasene nabo, abavumela ukuba bacel ’ umngeni ukuthembeka nokuchana kwengxelo. Bakwanelungelo lokunyanzeleka ukuba bafumane amangqina ekuwathandeni, baqinisekise ukuba banganikela ukhuseleko olupheleleyo. Abatshutshisi bathwele umthwalo wokungqina ukuba banetyala ngokungenakuphikiswa, owona mlinganiselo uphakamileyo wobungqina kumthetho waseMelika, ubonakalisa umgaqo wokuba kungcono kubantu abanetyala ukuba bakhululeke kunokuba bagwetywe ngabantu abangenatyala.
Ilungelo elichasene nengozi ephindwe kabini, elikwafunyanwa kwiSihlaziyo sesihlanu, lithintela urhulumente ukuba agwebe umntu kabini ngenxa yetyala elifanayo emva kokugwetywa okanye ukuqinisekiswa. Oku kukhusela kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente ugqibele kwaye kuthintela urhulumente ukuba angasebenzisi oovimba bakhe abaphezulu ukuthoba abamangalelwa ngokuwatshutshisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo.
Inkqubo yoLungiso lweposi
Imigaqo efunekayo yokukhusela iyaqhubeka nasemva kokuqiniseka. UMthetho-nkqubo Wesi-8h WesiGqeba uthintela isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga, ukunciphisa ukuqatha kwezigwebo neendlela zokusohlwaya. Abameli banelungelo lokubhenela kwiinkolelo zabo, yaye kwiimeko zokufa, izibheno zinyanzelekile. Ababanjiweyo bahlala bengenamalungelo athile omgaqo-siseko yaye abanako ukubekwa esichengeni okanye ukuvalelwa okungahlonelwayo.
Ingcebiso ye-Habeas inikela ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo, ivumela amabanjwa ukuba acel ’ umngeni ukuvalelwa kwawo ngokusemthethweni kwinkundla karhulumente nasemva kokuba isibheno sawo siphelile. Lo mmangaliso wamandulo, maxa wambi obizwa ngokuba "Mbindi Omkhulu," usebenza njengengqwalasela yokugqibela nxamnye nokuvalelwa okungekho mthethweni kwaye uye wasetyenziselwa ukuphelisa ukuchasana okunzulu komgaqo-siseko kuquka ukungaphumeleli koncedo lwesiluleko kunye nokuziphatha okubi kwabatshutshisi.
Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Kuqhubekeko Lwabemi
Nangona iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zokukhusela kwiimeko zamakhaya zincinane kakhulu kunezo zithethwayo, zihlala zibalulekile ekuthinteleni ukuphunyezwa korhulumente ngokungekho mthethweni. Iingxoxo zamakhaya zingabandakanya izilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo eziquka amalungelo empahla, umsebenzi, iinzuzo zikarhulumente, amalungelo obuzali, kunye nokufuduka. Umgangatho wenkqubo ofunekayo uxhomekeke kwimo yenzala esesichengeni kunye nomngcipheko wokungafunwa ngempazamo.
Amalungelo Empahla Neengenelo Zikarhulumente
Inkqubo elindelekileyo ayikhuseli amalungelo empahla yemveli nje kuphela njengendawo yefa lendalo nezinto zobuqu kodwa ikwanezinto ezithile "izilangazelelo ezifanelekileyo" ezenziwe ngumthetho okanye inkqubo karhulumente. Goldberg v.Kelly (1970), iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni iingenelo zentlalo-ntle zingumdla womnikelo okhuselwe yinkqubo efanelekileyo, ifuna ukuviwa ngaphambi kokuba inzuzo ipheliswe. Lo mgaqo unyuselwe kwezinye iinzuzo zikarhulumente kunye nemvume apho abantu benelungelo elifanelekileyo lokunikwa imvume yelungelo kunokuba balindele nje ukuba intelekelelo okanye ukulindela okungenatyala.
Umsebenzi kawonke-wonke ungenza izilangazelelo zempahla ezikhuselwe yinkqubo efanelekileyo. Abafundisi-mfundo abaqeshiweyo, abasebenzi belizwe abakhuselwe emsebenzini, nabanye abaqeshwayo abanokugxothwa kuphela "ngenxa yesizathu" banomdla wempahla kwimisebenzi eqhubekayo engenakuthatyathwa ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Oku kudla ngokufuna isaziso ngezizathu zokutshayela kunye nethuba lokuphendula, nangona iinkqubo ezithile ezifunekayo zingekho semthethweni kunezimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho.
Inkululeko Inomdla Kwimeko Yamakhaya
Izilangazelelo zenkululeko ezikhuselwe yinkqubo efanelekileyo zidlulela ngaphaya kwenkululeko ekuzibambeni. Umonakalo kudumo lukabani ngokunxulumene nesenzo sikarhulumente ungabangela izilangazelelo zenkululeko, ingakumbi xa zichaphazela amandla omntu okusukela umsebenzi othile. Abazali banomdla osisiseko kwinkathalo, i-lonke, ukugcinwa kwelungelo, nokulawulwa kwabantwana babo, ithetha ukuba imigudu karhulumente yokuphelisa amalungelo abazali okanye ukususa abantwana kubazali babo ifuna inkqubela-nkqubo efanelekileyo.
Abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke banemiboniso nenkululeko kwimfundo yabo efuna inkqubo efunekayo ngaphambi kokuzinyotywa okanye ukugxothwa. Gos v. Lopez (1975], iNkundla Ephakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni abafundi abajongene nokuvalwa okufutshane kwamaxesha amafutshane kufuneka bafumane isaziso sazo izityholo kunye nethuba lokusabela. Ukugxothwa okanye ukugxothwa okuninzi kufuna iinkqubo ezisesikweni, ezinokubandakanyeke ukuvalwa kwamalungelo okukhoyo kunye nobungqina.
Inkqubela yolawulo
Amagosa karhulumente enza izigqibo ezininzi ezichaphazela amalungelo abantu nezilangazelelo zabo, ekukhanyeni amagunya oogqirha okubeka amatyala ekupheliseni iinzuzo. Inkqubo efunekayo isebenza kwezi zenzo zolawulo, nangona iinkqubo ezifunekayo zingekho semthethweni kangako kunezo zithethwa yinkundla. Inkqubo efunekayo iquka isaziso sesenzo esicetyiweyo, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina neempikiswano, nesigqibo somenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi buso, kunye nengcaciso yezizathu zesigqibo.
UMthetho woLawulo lweProcedua kunye nemithetho efanayo yesizwe imisela iimfuno ezisisiseko ezisisiseko ukwenzela izenzo ezininzi zoorhulumente, ukongeza iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zomGaqo-siseko. Le mimiselo isoloko ilungiselela ukuva okusesikweni okanye okungacwangciswanga, ilungelo lokumelwe lilulekwe, ithuba lokunqumla amangqina ee-examine, nelungelo lokubhenela kwizigwebo ezichaseneyo kwiinkundla.
Amalungelo Akhethekileyo Afanele Aziwe Ngabemi Ngabo Bonke
Ukuqonda amalungelo akho akhethekileyo afanelekileyo kunokukunceda uzikhusele kwiimeko ezahlukahlukeneyo ezibandakanya ukuphunyezwa ngurhulumente.
Ilungelo Lokuphawula
Unelungelo lokwaziswa ngezenzo zomthetho okanye iingxoxo ezichasene nawe. Esi saziso kufuneka sibelwa ngokufanelekileyo ukukwazisa ngesenzo kwaye kufuneka sinikezele iinkcukacha ezaneleyo malunga noko kuthelekelelwayo, isiseko esisemthethweni sesenzo, kunye nalapho naphi na apho kuza kubakho ukuva. Qaphela kufuneka kunikelwe ngexesha elifanelekileyo elikunika ithuba elaneleyo lokulungiselela impendulo. Inkonzo yenkqubo yemithetho kumatyala asekuhlaleni kunye neemfuno zomgaqo-siseko kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho iqinisekisa ukuba ngokwenene uyafumana isaziso kunokuba sithunyelwe kwidilesi engalunganga okanye singafikeleli kuwe.
Ilungelo Lokuva
Phambi kokuba urhulumente akuhluthe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, unelungelo lokuphulaphula apho unokulibeka khona icala lakho. Umgaqo-nkqubo kunye nexesha lokuchotshelwa kwalo lixhomekeke kwiimeko. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, unelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokupheleleyo ngemiqathango ebanzi. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, usenokuba nelungelo lokuchotshelwa kwenkundla okanye ukuchotshelwa kwetyala. Kwanakwimeko engekhoyo esesikweni njengesohlwayo okanye ingqeqesho okanye umsebenzi karhulumente, unelungelo lokuphulaphula ngokuphandle apho ungasichazangacwangciswanga.
Ilungelo Lokunikela Ubungqina Nelokuzithethelela
Ngexesha lokuva, unelungelo lokunikela ubungqina obuxhasa indawo yakho. Oku kungaquka amaxwebhu, ubungqina obubonakalayo, ubungqina obunikela ubungqina, kunye nobungqina bakho. Kwimeko ezininzi, unelungelo lokukuchasa ngamangqina ee-examine, uvavanya ukuthembeka kwawo nokuchana kwawo. Ungenza iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni malunga nesizathu sokuba isenzo sikarhulumente singafanelekanga okanye singekho mthethweni. Umlinganiselo wala malungelo uhluka kakhulu kuvavanyo lolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye awukho semthethweni ozimiselanga ngokubhekiselele kwimibango yolawulo.
Ilungelo Lomenzi Wesigqibo Ongakhethi Buso
Umntu okanye iqumrhu eligqiba ityala lakho kufuneka lingacalucalucalulo kwaye lingacaci. Abaphathi-mikhosi, abaphulaphuli, kunye nabenzi besigqibo solawulo abanako ukuzuza isibonda sobuqu okanye semali kwiziphumo zetyala kwaye akufunekanga ucinge kwangaphambili ngetyala lakho. Ukuba ukholelwa ukuba umenzi wesigqibo uphakamile, ungakwazi ukucela ukuba bazibeke esichengeni. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, unelungelo lokuya kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala abangakhethi cala abangazange bazenzele iimbono ngetyala lakho okanye ukungabi natyala.
Ilungelo Lokumela Umthetho
Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho apho ujongene nokuvalelwa, unelungelo lokumelwe ligqwetha, kwaye ukuba awunamali, urhulumente kufuneka anikeze umntu ngaphandle kwexabiso. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, unelungelo lokuqesha igqwetha lakho ukuba ukhetha, nangona urhulumente engafunwanga ukuba akunike elinye. Eminye imimiselo inikela ngesiluleko esimiselweyo kwiimeko ezithile zasekuhlaleni ezibandakanya izilangazelelo ezisisiseko, njengokuphelisa amalungelo abazali. Kwanaxa ungenalo ilungelo lokuqeshwa, ungakwazi ukuba nommeli ongengomthetho ukukunceda kwimicimbi yolawulo.
Ilungelo Lesigqibo Esinesizathu
Abenzi besigqibo kufuneka ngokuqhelekileyo banike izizathu zezigqibo zabo, bachaze iingxelo ezichanekileyo nezigqibo ezixhaswa ngumthetho ezixhasa iziphumo. Le mfuneko ikhuthaza ukuphendula ityala kwaye ikuvumela uqonde isizathu sokuba isigqibo sichasene nawe. Kwakhona kulula ukuhlolisisa imigaqo enenjongo, njengoko inkundla ezihlolayo zinokuhlola enoba eso sigqibo sixhaswa ngobungqina na kwaye sisetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo umthetho.
Ilungelo Lokubhenela
Kwiimeko ezininzi, unelungelo lokubhenela kwisigqibo esichaseneyo negunya eliphakamileyo. Iinkolelo zolwaphulo-mthetho zingabheniswa kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo. Izigqibo zolawulo zinokubhena ngaphakathi kwesebe lalo landula ke zibhenqwe kwiinkundla. Iinkundla zamakhaya zingabhena kwiinkundla zetyala. Ngoxa ubalo lwenkcazelo ye-appelte lutshintsha-tshintsha ngo-/ezinye izibheno zibandakanya ukuvavanywa okupheleleyo kwetyala ngoxa ezinye zilinganiselweyo ukuqwalasela iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni.
Ukuphulwa Kwenkqubo Okuqhelekileyo Nendlela Yokuthetha Nazo
Nakuba kukho ukhuseleko olusemthethweni, kuyenzeka ukwaphulwa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo.
Isaziso Esinganele
Ukwaphula umthetho okuqhelekileyo kubandakanya isaziso esingafanelekanga okanye esingalindelekanga. Ukuba ufumana isaziso sexesha elidlulileyo lokulungiselela ngokwaneleyo, ukuba isaziso asikwazi ukuchaza izityholo okanye izityholo ozichasayo, okanye ukuba isaziso sithunyelwe kwidilesi ephosakeleyo ngaphandle kwemigudu esengqiqweni yokufumana, amalungelo akho afanelekileyo asenokuba aphulwe. Ukuba ufumanise ukuba isiganeko senzekile ngaphandle kwesaziso esifanelekileyo, ungakwazi ukuba neziphumo zomgwebo okanye isigqibo esibekwe ecaleni uze ufumane isaziso esifanelekileyo.
Ukukhanyela Amathuba Okuviwa
Ukuba urhulumente uthatha inyathelo ngokuchasene nawe ngaphandle kokukunika ithuba lokuthetha ngawe ngeli bali, oku kudla ngokuchasene nenkqubo efunekayo. Umzekelo, ukuba umbutho karhulumente uphelisa iingenelo zakho ngaphandle kokuva, ukuba isikolo sigxotha umfundi ngaphandle kokumvumela ukuba asabele kwizityholo, okanye ukuba impahla ibanjiwe ngaphandle kwesaziso kwaye inikwe ithuba lokuxhathisa ukuphaza, inkqubo efunekayo isenokuba yaphulwe. URedmed ingaquka ukubuyiselwa kwesigqibo, ukufumana ukuviwa, okanye ukubuyisela ilahleko ngenxa yokwaphulwa.
Abenzi- Bezigqibo Abangalungiswanga
Xa umenzi wesigqibo enemngquzulwano yenzala okanye egwebe kwangaphambili ityala, inyathelo elifanelekileyo liyaphulwa. Oku kunokwenzeka ukuba ijaji inomdla wemali kwiziphumo, ukuba igosa elivayo ngaphambili liphanda ngetyala laza lagqiba ngalo, okanye ukuba umenzi wesigqibo unentiyo yobuqu ngawe. Ukuba uyakwazi ukubonisa ikhethe lokwenene okanye iimeko ezidala ubungozi obungamkelekiyo bocalucalulo, unganelungelo lokuva kwakhona phambi koMenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi khethe.
Ukukhanyela Icebiso
Kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho apho ukuvalelwa kunokwenzeka, ukukhanyelwa kwelungelo lokucebisa kukuchasana okunzulu okufanelekileyo. Ukuba awuxelelwanga ngelungelo lakho kwigqwetha, ukuba unqandwe ukuba umele igqwetha, okanye ukuba unikwe uncedo olungasebenziyo lwesiluleko esiwe phantsi kwemigangatho yezobucukubhedengu, ukunyanzeleka kwakho kungatshintshwa. Ityala lesazisi Stickland v. Washington[ [19984]) wamisela umgangatho woncedo lweziphakamiso ezingasebenziyo, ufuna abamangalelwa ukuba babonise ukuba ukusebenza kwegqwethantswo babengayiyo kwaye oku kulula ukugxeka iziphumo.
Indlela Yokuqinisekisa Amalungelo Akho Afanelekileyo
Ukuba ukholelwa ukuba amalungelo akho enkqubo afanelekileyo aphulwe, kusenokufumaneka iindlela ezininzi. Okokuqala, phakamisa umba kunye nomenzi wesigqibo okanye umphathi wawo. Ngamanye amaxesha ukwaphula umthetho kungalungiswa ngokukhawuleza ngokunika inkqubo eyongezelelekileyo okanye ngokuvula kwakhona inkqubela. Okwesibini, sebenzisa imigaqo yokubhenela ekhoyo ukuvavanya isigqibo kwiqumrhu eliphezulu okanye inkundla. Okwesithathu, qwalasela ukumangalelwa kwetyala phantsi kwama- 42.SC. . ngo196 1983, okuvumela abantu ukuba batshate noorhulumente kunye namagosa asekuhlaleni ukwenzela ukungqubana komgaqo-siseko, okanye isenzo sokulwa nomthetho we-Bisigqeba. Okwesine, kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, kunyuswe inkqubo ekufuneka ibekwe phantsi kwesibheno okanye kwisibheno esithe ngqo okanye kwi-hayibhusayithi.
Ukudibana negqwetha elinamava kumthetho-siseko okanye kummandla ofanelekileyo woqheliselo kunokukunceda uqonde ukhetho lwakho uze uphuhlise indlela esebenzayo yokukhusela amalungelo akho. Iintlangano ezininzi zoncedo olusemthethweni namaqela alwela amalungelo abantu zinikela uncedo kwiimfuno ezifanelekileyo, ingakumbi kubantu abangakwaziyo ukunikela icebiso lobuqu.
Ihambelana Nenkqubo Kummandla Okhethekileyo
Ezinye imo-mongo zichaza imicimbi ekhethekileyo efuna ingqalelo ekhethekileyo. Ukuqonda indlela esebenzayo kwezi meko zichaziweyo kunokukunceda uqhube kakuhle.
Ulwandiso
Iinkqubo zokufuduka zibandakanya ukuqwalaselwa okubalulekileyo kweenkqubo ezifanelekileyo, nangona ukhuseleko olukhoyo kubantu abangenamakhaya maxa wambi luba luncinane kunezo zikhoyo kubemi. Abangengobemi abajongene nokugxothwa banelungelo lokuqaphela izityholo, ukuva phambi komgwebi ofudukayo, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina namangqina, kunye nelungelo lokubhenela. Noko ke, akukho lungelo lemithetho elisemthethweni lokumisela isiluleko ekundulukeni, nangona abantu benokuqesha amagqwetha abo. Iinkqubo ezithile zokususwa kwelizwe zinikela inkqubela encinane, zinyusa inkxalabo ngobulungisa nokuchana.
INkundla ePhakamileyo ithi kwanabaphambukeli abangabhalwanga phantsi bakhuselekile yi-Auth Procession Claus, nangona iinkqubo ezichaziweyo ezifunekayo zingahluka kwezo zikwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukuvalelwa ixesha elide ngaphandle kokuvalwa kwetyala kuphakamisa inkxalabo efunekayo, njengokuba ukukhanyela ukufikelela kwisiluleko okanye ukusetyenziswa kobungqina bokuba umphambukeli akanakuvavanya ngokuphumelelayo.
Uqeqesho Lwesikolo
Abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke banemiboniso nenkululeko kwimfundo yabo exhokonxa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo. Umgangatho wenkqubo efunekayo uxhomekeke kubukhulu besenzo soqeqesho. Ukususwa kwexesha elifutshane kweentsuku ezilishumi okanye kufutshane kufuna isaziso ngezityholo kunye nethuba lokuba umfundi aphendule, kodwa hayi ukuva okusesikweni. Ukutyhalwa nokugxothwa okuqhubekayo kufuna iinkqubo ezithe chatha, eziquka ukuva okusesikweni, ilungelo lokubhenela kumangqina akhoyo, kunye nelungelo lokubhenela.
Abafundi abaneziphene bafumana inkxaso eyongezelelekileyo phantsi koMthetho weDrugment Education Act (IDEA), ofuna izikolo zibone enoba ukuziphatha okubi yayiyimbonakaliso yokukhubazeka komfundi kwaye zithintele iimeko apho abafundi abaneziphene banokubekwa khona okanye bagxothwe. Le nkqubo yokhuseleko yomgaqo-siseko ibonelela imigaqo elungele ukugcinwa kwabafundi ababuthathaka.
Imisebenzi Karhulumente
Abasebenzi bakawonke-wonke banokuba nemisebenzi yempahla kwimisebenzi yabo ukuba banemisebenzi ephezulu, ukhuseleko lwenkonzo yasekuhlaleni, okanye izivumelwano ezilinganisela izithuba zokuphelisa. Xa kukho izilangazelelo zempahla ezinjalo, abasebenzi abanakugxothwa ngaphandle kwenkqubela efanelekileyo, equka isaziso sezizathu zokuphelisa kunye nethuba lokuphendula. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yahlula phakathi kwenkqubo yangaphambi kwexesha lokuzalwa kwenyanga, ibambe okokuba xa inkqubo ethile kufuneka inikezelwe ngaphambi kokupheliswa, ukuva okupheleleyo kunokwenzeka emva kokuba inikelwe ngokukhawuleza.
Kuthe ngoko kuthanda abasebenzi bakawonke-wonke abanokugxothwa nangasiphi na isizathu okanye abaso nasiphi na isizathu ngokubanzi abanayo inzala yempahla kumsebenzi oqhubekekayo kwaye ngoko abanawo amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo malunga nokuphelisa. Noko ke, ukuba ukubulawa kukhatshwa ziingxelo zikawonke-wonke zonakalisa igama lomqeshwa kwaye kuchaphazela amandla abo okufumana omnye umsebenzi, izilangazelelo zenkululeko zingaba negalelo, kufuna ukuba urhulumente anike umqeshwa ithuba lokucacisa amagama abo.
Amalungelo Omzali
Ulwalamano phakathi kwabazali nabantwana lukhuselwa yinkqubo efunekayo ephantsi njengenzala esisiseko yenkululeko. Imigudu karhulumente yokususa amalungelo abazali okanye ukususa ngokusisigxina abantwana kubazali babo ifuna ubungqina obucacileyo nobuneyisekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olunzulu lwemiqathango. Abazali banelungelo lokuqaphela, ukuva, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina, kunye nemithetho emininzi, ilungelo lokucebisa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba umdla wabazali abakwinkathalo, igumbi lokugcina abantwana babo kunye nokulawula abantwana babo ngu "mhlawumbi oyena mdala wenkululeko esisiseko"
Kwanokususwa kwabantwana okwexeshana kubazali kwiimeko zokukhuselwa kwabantwana kufuna inkqubo efunekayo, nangona ukususwa kongxamiseko kungavunyelwa xa kukho ingozi ekhawulezileyo kumntwana, ngendlebe ekhawulezileyo emva kombutho wokufumana ukuba ulwahlulo oluqhubekayo luyathetheleleka kusini na. Iinkqubo zifuna ukulungelelanisa amalungelo asisiseko abazali nxamnye nomdla karhulumente wokukhusela abantwana ekuxhatshazweni nasekutyeshelweni.
Amalungelo Amabanjwa
Nangona ukuvalelwa kusikelwe umda amalungelo amaninzi, amabanjwa agcina ukhuseleko oluthile olusemthethweni oluquka amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo. Iinkqubo zoqeqesho ezichaphazela ubude bokuvalelwa okanye imiqathango eyongezelelekileyo ephawulekayo kufuneka zilandelwe inkqubo efunekayo, kuquka isaziso esibhaliweyo sangaphambili, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina nokubiza amangqina (ngokubhekisele kukhuseleko lomthetho), kunye nesigqibo esibhaliweyo esichaza izizathu zesiphumo.
Ukudlulisela kwiimeko ezingqongqo, ezifana nokuvalelwa wedwa okanye ukuthunyelwa kwisakhiwo sokhuseleko esiphezulu, kungabangela ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo ukuba utshintsho lumisela "uphawu kunye nobunzima obubalulekileyo" xa kuthelekiswa neemeko eziqhelekileyo zentolongo. Noko ke, iinkundla zisoloko zithobela imigwebo yabalawuli bentolongo ngokhuseleko nolawulo, kwaye inkqubo efunekayo kwintolongo ingaphezulu kakhulu kunakwezinye izicwangciso.
Ulwalamano phakathi kwenkqubo elindelekileyo namanye amalungelo omGaqo-siseko
Inkqubo elindelekileyo ayikho ngokuzikhetha kodwa isebenzisana nokuqinisa ezinye izinto ezikhuselwa ngumGaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda olu lwalamano kunikela intsingiselo epheleleyo yendlela umGaqo-siseko okhusela ngayo amalungelo omntu ngamnye.
Inkqubela efanelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo
ISindululo seshumi elinesine siqulethe i-Bacted Procesme Claus ne-Aumelt Protection Claus, ekwalelayo ukukhanyela nawuphi na umntu "ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho." Ngoxa inkqubo efanelekileyo ibhekisa kwiinkqubo ezisesikweni nakumalungelo asisiseko, ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo kwedilesi zokukhusela impatho-mbini. Ezi ngcamango zimbini zidibana kwezinye iindawo, ucalucalulo kudidi olurhanelwayo ngendlela enokuthi ibekelwe ilungelo elisisiseko lingqubana nokhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo.
INkundla ePhakamileyo ngamanye amaxesha iye yasebenzisa inkqubo efunekayo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo okanye ngokudityaniswa. Umzekelo, i-Lovang v. Virginia, eyabetha imithetho ethintela umtshato wobuhlanga, ixhomekeke kukhuseleko olulinganayo (ngokuba imithetho eyacalulwe ngokusekelwe kuhlanga) kunye nenkqubo efunekayo (ngokuba yaphazamisa ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata). Oku kubonisa ukulingana kokhuseleko olunempumelelo lwale mithetho ekulondolozeni inkululeko kunye nokulingana kwabantu ngabanye.
INkqubo eCwangcisiweyo neSibheno saMalungelo
Ngemfundiso yokuququzelela, i-Ustry Processol Claus ye-14th Amendment iye yachazwa ukuba isebenzise inkoliso yeSigqeba samaLungelo ekukhuseleni oorhulumente bakarhulumente. Oku kuthetha ukuba amalungelo afana nenkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, ukukhusela ukuphandwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, ilungelo lokuchasene nokuzithethelela, kwanamalungelo okunokuvavanywa kwejaji ngoku asebenza kumazwe nge-Admitte Commerment’s Procession ye-145tic Claus.
Imfundiso yokuququzelela iphuhliswe kwinkqubo "yokukhetha ngokudibanisa," ngeNkundla ePhakamileyo ehlola iBhili nganye yamaLungelo ngokobuqu ukufumanisa ukuba ibaluleke kusini na kwinkqubo yethu yenkululeko eyayalelwayo kwaye ngoko iyasebenza kumazwe. Phantse zonke iiBhili zamaLungelo ngoku zidibene, nezibonelelo ezimbalwa kuphela `ezifana nelungelo eliphezulu kwityala eligwetyisiweyo kunye nomthetho owenziwe ngokugqithisileyo webheyile-ukuhlala kusebenza kurhulumente worhulumente.
Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya
Inkqubo elindelekileyo ikwanxulumene nomgaqo-siseko wokwahlula amagunya. Ngokufuna iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo kunye nokumisela inyathelo lorhulumente elizimeleyo, inkqubo efanelekileyo inceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe elinye lorhulumente elisebenzisa amandla angathintelwayo. Imfuneko yokuhlola izenzo zikarhulumente inika uvavanyo kumandla olawulo kunye nowiso-mthetho. Ukwalela kwiindleko zetyala lokufikelela kwi-ofisi/i-ofisi/i-ofisi. Ukwalela kwiindleko zokufumana i-asethi yemiqathango ebohlwaya abantu abathile ngaphandle kokuvavanywa.
Amasebe olawulo, adibanisa imisebenzi yolawulo oluphezulu, yowiso-mthetho, kunye neyokugweba, anyusa ukwahlulwa okukhethekileyo kwamandla kunye nenkxalabo eenkqubo ezifanelekileyo. Imfuneko yokuba izifungo zihambelane neenkqubo ezifanelekileyo inceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba la magunya anamandla awasebenzisi igunya elisesikweni, nangona esebenza ngaphandle kwesakhiwo esiqhelekileyo esinemiqathango emithathu.
Iingxaki Nempikiswano Ezabakho Kwinkqubo Efanelekileyo
Umthetho ofanelekileyo uyaqhubeka uguquka njengoko iinkundla zijamelana neengxaki ezintsha yaye abantu bephikisana ngokulungelelana okufanelekileyo phakathi kwamalungelo omntu neenjongo zikarhulumente.
Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo
Inkqubela-phambili kubugcisa iphakamisa imibuzo efunekayo yenkqubo ebhaliweyo, ingakumbi malunga nokuzimela kwabucala kunye nokuhlola kukarhulumente. Ingaba ingqokelela karhulumente ye-data yendawo yeselfowuni, i-Internet yokukhangela imbali, okanye ulwazi lobuso olufuna amalungelo afunekayo? Ziziphi iinkqubo ezifuneka phambi kokuba urhulumente afikelele ulwazi olunjalo? INkundla ePhakamileyo iqalile ukuphendula le miba, ibamba kwi- Carpeenter v. United States [2088] ukufikelela iingxelo zengingqi yeselfowuni yembali kudinga isiqinisekiso, kodwa imibuzo emininzi ihlala ingalungiswa.
Iinkqubo zokwenza izigqibo ezizenzekelayo ezisetyenziswa ngabameli bakarhulumente ziphakamisa inkxalabo eyongezelelekileyo. Xa imithetho-manani igqiba ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuba kubekho inzuzo, ivavanya umngcipheko kwiimeko zobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye yenza ezinye izigqibo ezilandelayo, inkqubo efunekayo ingafuna ukuba kubonakale ukuba ezi nkqubo zisebenza njani, amathuba okuvavanya iziphumo zazo, kunye nokuhlalutywa komntu ngezigqibo ezizenzekelayo. Ulwalamano lobuchule beminye iinkqubo ze-algorictic kunye nobunzima bokucacisa izigqibo zabo kudala ukuxabana nenkqubo engokwesithethe efunekayo yokwenza isigqibo.
Ukhuseleko Lwesizwe Namandla eengxamiseko
Uxanduva oluphakathi kwamalungelo enkqubo afanelekileyo kunye nenkxalabo yokhuseleko lwesizwe luye lwakhula kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Ukuvalelwa kwabanqolobi abarhanelwayo eGuantanamo Bay, ukubulawa kwabemi base-U.S. kunye neenkqubo zokuhlola kuphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko malunga nomgangatho ofanelekileyo wokhuseleko lwesizwe. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yakholelwa ukuba kwanamajoni abanjwa yi-U.S. amajoni angootshaba afaneleyo, iinkqubo ezithile ezifunekayo zihlala zikhuphisana yaye zinkulu kunasematyala olwaphulo-mthetho aqhelekileyo.
Iimeko zexesha likaxakeka, ezibandakanya ukhuseleko lwesizwe, impilo kawonke-wonke, okanye iintlekele zemvelo, zingathethelela iinkqubo ezixolelweyo okanye imiqathango yexeshana kumalungelo, kodwa inkqubo efanelekileyo isasebenza. Isifo se-COVID-19 siphakamisa imibuzo efunekayo kwiinkqubo zonyango longxamiseko, ukuvalwa kwemiqathango yeshishini, kunye nokugxothwa kweprojekthi. Iinkundla kufuneka zilungelelanise iimfuno zikarhulumente ngokukhawuleza kwiimeko zongxamiseko nxamnye namalungelo abantu ekunyangweni kunye nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuvavanyanisa izenzo zikarhulumente.
Ukungalingani Kwezoqoqosho Nokufumana Okusesikweni
Nangona inkqubo efanelekileyo iqinisekisa amalungelo asesikweni angokwesithethe, ukungalingani kwezoqoqosho kunokwenza imiqobo ekufikeleleni okunentsingiselo kokusesikweni. Iindleko zomelo olusemthethweni, iindleko zenkundla, kunye nezinye iindleko zingathintela abantu abahlawulwayo ukuba basebenzise ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo abo enkqubo. Nangona umGaqo-siseko ufuna ukucetyiswa kwiimeko ezibandakanya ukuvalelwa kwezaphuli-mthetho, ngokuqhelekileyo akukho lungelo lokucetyiswa kwiimeko zabemi, kwanaxa izilangazelelo ezisisiseko ezifana nezindlu, ingqibelelo yentsapho, okanye inkcitho.
Bambi abaxhasi bathi inkqubo efanelekileyo ifanele ichazwe ukuze kufuneke isiluleko esimiselweyo kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni ezibandakanya iimfuno ezisisiseko zabantu, ngoxa abanye bephikisa ngelithi ukwandisa ilungelo lokucebisa kukukhetha umthetho kwiindlu yowiso-mthetho kunokuba kube yimfuno yomGaqo-siseko. Imithetho emininzi iye yamisela ilungelo lokululeka iinkqubo ezithile kwiimeko ezithile, iqonda ukuba amalungelo asemthethweni angenanjongo ngaphandle kokukwazi ukuwasebenzisa ngokuphumelelayo.
Umda wenkqubo elindelekileyo
Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka malunga nobungakanani obufanelekileyo benkqubo encinci efunekayo yokuzithethelela kunye nendima yeenkundla ekuchazeni amalungelo asisiseko angamiselwanga. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo efunekayo engamiselwanga ivumela abagwebi abangamiselwanga ukuba banyanzelise amaxabiso abo kwibutho labantu kwaye iinkundla kufuneka zikulungele ukwenza izigqibo zedemokhrasi ngaphandle kokuba apho umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko uthintela ngokucacileyo umsebenzi karhulumente. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ephantsi kwesiseko iyimfuneko ukukhusela amalungelo asisiseko kwimikhosi emininzi yoozwilakhe kwaye ulwimi olubanzi lukhuthaza ukutyhilwa okuvela ngokutshintsha kweengqiqo zentlalo.
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yakutshanje zibonise olu ngquzulwano. Ukubhukuqwa kwe Roe v. Wade ku[FLT]] Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'S Health Organization[ [2022])) kwamela ukuncitshiswa okubalulekileyo kwenkqubo efunekayo esezantsi, noluvo loninzi olugxeka indlela yangaphambili yeNkubonakalisa amalungelo angundoqo nokugxininisa imfuneko yokuba "kusekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga." Esi sigqibo siye saphakamisa imibuzo malunga nenkqubo yexesha elizayo efunekayo nezinye iinkundla zezolwazi ngezolwazi-mthetho kufuneka zisebenzise ukungawamkeli amalungelo.
Amacebiso Asebenzisekayo Okukhusela Amalungelo Okulungelelanisa
Kubalulekile ukuqonda indlela efunekayo yokuchaza, kodwa kubalulekile ukwazi indlela yokukhusela amalungelo akho ekusetyenzisweni. Nanga amanyathelo acacileyo onokuwathabatha ukuze ulondoloze amalungelo akho afunekayo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo.
Phendla InjiniName
Gcina iingxelo ezineenkcukacha zokunxibelelana namaziko karhulumente, ukunyanzelisa umthetho, izikolo, okanye amanye amaqumrhu anokuchaphazela amalungelo akho. Gcina zonke isaziso, iileta, ii-imeyili, kunye nezinye iindlela zonxibelelwano. Thatha iiphetshana lencoko yefowuni, kuquka umhla, ixesha, umntu othetha naye, noko kuxutyushwe naye. Ukuba uyaphulaphulwa okanye udibana, thatha amaphetshana okanye buze ukuba ungayibhala (apho uvunyelwe ngokusemthethweni). La maxwebhu anokuba yimfuneko ukuba ufuna ukuvavanya isigqibo okanye ungqine ukuba imigaqo efanelekileyo ayilandelwanga.
Phendula Kuzo Zonke Iiphetshana
Xa ufumana isaziso ngezomthetho, izenzo zolawulo, okanye ezinye izenzo zikarhulumente ezikuchaphazelayo, phendula ngokukhawuleza kwaye ufeze yonke imisebenzi egqityiweyo. Ukungaphenduli kungaphumela kwimigwebo engagqibekanga okanye kwizigqibo ezichasene nawe. Ukuba ufuna ixesha elininzi lokulungiselela, cela ulwandiso lokubhala phambi kokuba ixesha lokugqiba ixesha lidlule. Ukuba awusiqondi isaziso okanye oko ufuna ukukwenza, funa uncedo ngoko nangoko kwigqwetha, kumbutho woncedo olusemthethweni, okanye komnye umthombo onolwazi.
Yazi Ixesha Lokucela Ukuva
Izenzo ezininzi zikarhulumente zinokucelw'eculw'eculw' ukuphulaphula okanye ukubhena, kodwa kufuneka ucele ukuchongwa ngamaxesha athile aqingqiweyo. Funda zonke isaziso ngononophelo ukuze uchaze ixesha elifanelekileyo lokucela ukuviwa okanye ukukhutshwa kwezicelo. Ukuba awuvumelani nesigqibo sikarhulumente esichaphazela iinzuzo zakho, umsebenzi, ilayisensi, okanye ezinye izilangazelelo, cela ukuchongwa ngokukhawulezileyo. Musa ukucinga ukuba urhulumente uza kunikela ukuva ngokuzenzekelayo.
Funa Uncedo Olusemthethweni Kusekuseni
Jongana negqwetha kwangoko kangangoko kunokwenzeka xa ujongene nesenzo sikarhulumente esichaphazela amalungelo akho. Imibutho emininzi yoncedo olusemthethweni inikela uncedo olukhululekileyo okanye oluphantsi ukuze kufunyanwe abantu abafanelekileyo. Ii-arhente zeBar zisoloko zineenkonzo zegqwetha ezinokukudibanisa namagqwetha anokusingatha iintlobo ezithile zamatyala. Amanye amagqwetha anikela uphando lwamahala olukhululekileyo. Kwanokuba awunako ukuqesha igqwetha ukuze likwazi ukukumela ngokupheleleyo, ukudibana kungakunceda uqonde amalungelo akho nokhetho lwakho.
Zilungiselele Ngokucokisekileyo Iindlebe
Ukuba unamava, lungisa ngenyameko. Lungisa ubungqina bakho kunye namaxwebhu. Yazi amangqina angaxhasa indawo yakho aze alungiselele ukuba abekho okanye anikezele iingxelo ezibhaliweyo. Lungiselela udweliso lwamaxwebhu ofuna ukuwathetha. Lindela imibuzo ongayibuza uze ucinge ngendlela yokuphendula. Ukuba kuyenzeka, tyelela indawo yokuphulaphula kusengaphambili ukuze wazi apho umele uye khona kwaye ukwazi oko ukukulindela. Nxiba ngokufanelekileyo kwaye ufike kwangoko. Zisa imibhalo yawo onke amaxwebhu ayimfuneko, uMenzi wesigqibo, nawaphi na amanye amagatya.
Sebenzisa Ilungelo Lakho Ukuze Uhlale Uthule
Ukuba uphakanyiswa ngumthetho, khumbula ukuba unelungelo lokuhlala uthule kwaye unelungelo kwigqwetha. Akuyomfuneko ukuba uphendule imibuzo, kwaye nantoni na ongayithethayo isenokusetyenziswa kuwe. Ngembeko kodwa uqinise amalungelo akho ngokuthi, "Ndiqhelisela ilungelo lam lokuhlala ndithulile kwaye ndingathanda ukuthetha negqwetha." Musa ukuvumela amagosa akunyanzelele ukuba uwaphule amalungelo akho. Nokuba uthe wakholelwa ukuba umsulwa kwaye awunanto yokufihla, kucetyiswa ukuba uthethe negqwetha ngaphambi kokuthetha negqwetha ngemicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho.
Abaenzi besigqibo abacelwe umngeni
Ukuba ukholelwa ukuba umntu ogqiba ngetyala lakho uxanduva lwemvo okanye ukhethe, phakamisa lento exhalabisayo ngokukhawuleza. I Fayile intshukumo ebhaliweyo okanye isicelo sokuzityand ’ igila ngesiseko senkxalabo yakho. Ukuba umakhi wesigqibo akavumi ukuzithethelela kwaye ukholelwa ukuba ucalucalulo lunzulu, ungakwazi ukubhenela esi sigqibo okanye ukuphakamisa njengezizathu zokucel ’ umngeni nasiphi na isigqibo esingalunganga. Musa ukulinda de emva kwesigqibo esingalunganga sokuphakamisa inkxaso---* xa uthe waqonda ukuba ingxabano inokwenzeka.
Londoloza Ilungelo Lakho Lokubhenela
Ukuba ufumana isigqibo esingalunganga, gqiba ngoko nangoko ukuba unalo ilungelo lokubhenela nokuba yintoni na ixesha eligqityiweyo. Izibheno zisoloko zigcinwa ngexesha elifutshane lexesha elifutshane, "manye amaxesha" njengeentsuku ezilishumi okanye ezingamashumi amathathu. Ukungalifumani ixesha lokufaka isibheno kungalilahla ngokupheleleyo ilungelo lakho lokuvavanya isigqibo. Nokuba awuqinisekanga ukuba ufuna ukubhenela, bhala isaziso sokubhenela kumaxesha ukuze ugcine amalungelo akho ngexesha elifanelekileyo xa ugqiba ukuba uza kuqhubeka na.
Ikamva Lenkqubo Elindelekileyo
Inkqubo ekhoyo ihlala ingumgaqo-siseko ophilayo oqhubeka uguquka ngenxa yokutshintsha kweemeko zentlalo, ubugcisa obutsha, kunye nokutshintsha kweentanda-bulumko zokugweba.
Ukwanda kokusetyenziswa kobugcisa ekwenzeni izigqibo zikarhulumente kuza kufuna ukuba iinkundla zilungelelanise imigaqo yenkqubo engokwesithethe engokwesithethe kwimeko entsha. Imibuzo malunga nokuvela kwemithetho-siseko, ilungelo lokuhlola komntu izigqibo ezizenzekelayo, kwaye imigaqo efunekayo ngaphambi kokusebenzisa ubugcisa bokuhlola iyakufuneka ngokwanda. Iinkundla ziya kufuneka zilungelelanise impumelelo kunye nokuguquguquka okunokubonelelwa yiteknoloji nxamnye nobungozi bobumfiliba, iinguqu, kunye neempazamo kwinkqubo ze-auto.
Ukuqalwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zesizwe kuza kuphembelela ngokuphawulekayo inkqubo efunekayo yesigwebo. Izindululo zakutshanje zitshintshe iNkundla ijongene nekhondo elithe tye ngakumbi, elinokukhokelela kwinkcazelo ecutheneyo yenkqubo efunekayo kunye nokuzimela kakhulu izilangazelelo zikarhulumente kwiimeko ezifanelekileyo. Noko ke, iziphumo ezingqalileyo ziya kuxhomekeka kumatyala afikelela kwiinkundla nendlela abagwebi ngabanye abajonga ngayo imibandela ethile.
Ukwanda kokungalingani kwenkqubo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni kusenokubangela utshintsho oluphucula inkqubo efunekayo yokukhusela abantu abaphantsi kwemiba. Oku kungaquka ukufikelela kwande kwisiluleko kwiimeko zabemi, utshintsho kwiibheyile kunye neenkqubo zokuvalelwa, ukuphucula ukhuseleko lwenkqubo yokufuduka, kunye nohlalutyo olungakumbi lwezenzo ezichaphazela ukufunyanwa kwabantu ngabanye namaqela abantu abanombala. Ngoxa ezinye ezi nguqu zinokuvela ngezi zigqibo zomthetho, ezinye ziya kufuna ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho-mthetho okanye iinguqulelo kwimikhwa yokulawula.
Uxanduva phakathi kwamalungelo abantu kunye nezilangazelelo zoluntu kunye neziqu zabo zidibeneyo, nempilo yoluntu, ukhuseleko lwesizwe, okanye ezinye izinto ezixhalabisayo, luza kuqhubeka luvavanya imida yenkqubo efunekayo. Iinkundla ziya kufuneka zifumanise ukuba kufunwa yiphi inkqubo kwiimeko zongxamiseko, ukuba yiyiphi imiqathango yenkululeko evumelekileyo ukusingatha iingozi zempilo yoluntu, nendlela yokulungelelanisa amalungelo obuqu nxamnye nokugcinwa komthetho kufuneka kuqwalaselwe ngamanani asasazekileyo.
Umthetho wamalungelo abantu kunye nomthetho wokwahlula-hlula womgaqo-siseko wehlabathi lonke ungayiphembelela ngokukhula inkqubo yesigwebo efunekayo yaseMerika. Njengoko iinkundla ehlabathini jikelele zizamana neembambano ezifanayo ezibandakanya iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo, amalungelo asisiseko, kunye nemida yamandla karhulumente, iinkundla zaseMerika zingakhangela kwimiqathango yamanye amazwe ukuze zifumane ukhokelo, kanye njengokuba iinkundla kwamanye amazwe ziye zakhangela kumthetho-siseko wase-U. Oku kukhutshwa kweengcamango ezinqamlezileyo kungenza imfundiso efanelekileyo ize inike iimbono ezintsha kwimibuzo ekudala ihleli.
Isiphelo: Isizathu Sokuba Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Ibaluleke
Inkqubo elindelekileyo ikwisiseko solawulo-mgaqo-siseko lwaseMerika, ikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye nokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente umele aphendule. Iquka umgaqo wokuba igunya likarhulumente limele lisetyenziswe kakuhle nokuba abantu banikwe isidima namalungelo angenakwaphulwa ngesiqu. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yalo engokwembali kwiMagna Carta ukuya kwiinkqubo zayo zale mihla ukususela kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kwiinkqubo zolawulo, inkqubo efunekayo iye yaguquka ukuze kuhlangatyezekene neemeko eziguqukayo ngoxa igcina isiseko sawo sokuzibophelela kokusesikweni.
Ukuqonda inkqubo efanelekileyo kunika abemi amandla okuqonda xa amalungelo abo esongelwa nokuthatha inyathelo lokuzikhusela. Enoba ujongene nezityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukumangalelwa kwezolawulo, ukuqeqeshwa esikolweni, okanye ezinye izenzo zikarhulumente ezichaphazela ubomi bakho, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ukwazi amalungelo akho afanelekileyo okuqhuba inkqubo kukunika izixhobo zokufuna ukuphathwa ngokufanelekileyo nokucelw' umngeni izigqibo ezingekho mthethweni. La malungelo akayonkqenkqeza phambili kodwa anokukhusela okusebenzisekayo okunokwenza umahluko phakathi kokusesikweni nokungekho sikweni kwiimeko ngazinye.
Iingxoxo eziqhubekayo eziphathelele ubukhulu benkqubo nokusetyenziswa kwayo zibonisa imibuzo esisiseko ngolwalamano lwabantu kunye norhulumente, indima yeenkundla ekukhuseleni amalungelo, nokulungelelana phakathi kwenkululeko nokhuseleko. Njengoko ibutho lijamelene neengxaki ezintsha ezibandakanya ubugcisa, ukungalingani, amandla ongxamiseko, kunye nokuqondwa kwamalungelo asisiseko, inkqubo efunekayo iza kuqhubeka isebenza njengesiseko esibalulekileyo sokucombulula ezi ngxaki nokuqinisekisa ukuba igunya likarhulumente lihlala linetyala kubantu elibasebenzelayo.
Kubemi, eyona nto ibalulekileyo kukuba amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo angoonyani, anyanzelekile ukuba akhuselwe ngumntu wonke. Asebenza kungakhathaliseki ukuba ungumntu onjani, unjani na, okanye unjani na. Balawula igunya likarhulumente kwaye balungiselele iindlela zokuvavanya ukuchatshazelwa okungalungisiyo. Ngokuqonda la malungelo, ngokubhala amaxwebhu karhulumente, ngokufuna uncedo olusemthethweni xa kuyimfuneko, nokuqinisekisa amalungelo akho xa esongelwa, unokuba unokuba unceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso senkqubo efanelekileyo sihlala siyinto ephilayo kunokuba sifumane amazwi nje ephepheni.
Ukufunda okungakumbi ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nokhuseleko olusemthethweni, tyelela i-website ye- ye-United States yamatyala, ubuncwane bophando oluvela kwiZiko leLibrari yeNkqutyana. Ezi zinto zinika ulwazi oluneenkcukacha malunga nenkqubo kunye namanye amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, zinceda abemi bahlale besazi ngezokhuseleko zabo ezingokwasemthethweni nangendlela abanokuzisebenzisa ngayo.
Inkqubo elindelekileyo asiyonto imileyo eqandisiweyo kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo kodwa ngumgaqo onamandla oziqhelanisa neemeko ezintsha ngoxa ukuzimisela kwawo okubalulekileyo kokusesikweni, isidima, kunye nomthetho. Ngokuqonda nokukhusela amalungelo enkqubo afanelekileyo, abemi banendima ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni ulawulo-siseko kunye nokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uhlala emele abantu baphendule. Kwixesha leenguqu ezikhawulezileyo kunye neengxaki ezintsha, lo mgaqo wamandulo uhlala ufanelekile kwaye uyimfuneko kunanini nanini na ngaphambili, umi njengokhuselo oluchasene namandla onyanzekileyo kunye nesiqinisekiso sokuba wonke umntu uya kuphathwa ngokusesikweni nangokuhlonela isidima somntu.