Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya lisiseko solawulo lomgaqo-siseko, ocetyelwe ukunqanda ukuxinezeleka kwegunya nakweliphi na isebe lorhulumente. Ngokwahlula iimbopheleleko phakathi kwegunya eliphetheyo, lowiso-mthetho, namasebe agwebayo, injongo yolawulo-melo yokukhusela nokuqinisekisa ii-check kunye nolwahlulo. Sekunjalo, la masebe asebenza ngokunqabileyo kwi-silos emo-moya. Amandla abethayo — apho amasebe amabini okanye angaphezulu anokuncedisa okanye alawula umsebenzi omnye — akaqheleki kuphela kodwa ayimfuneko rhoqo. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa oko kwenzeka xa amagunya ekhomba, iziseko zeli hlabathi, iziphumo zokwenene zezi ngqungquthelano, nendlela oorhulumente abanokuqhuba ngayo ngaphandle kokuzijongela idemo-demokhrasi.

Imvelaphi Yokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Imvelaphi yokwahlulwa kwamagunya ikwimisebenzi yeenkcuba - buchopho zoKhanyiso. UJohn Locke wahlula phakathi kwemithetho, impatho-mandla, kunye nemisebenzi edityanisiweyo, ngeli xesha uBaron de Montesquieu, uMoya woMthetho , (1748]), edumileyo ephikisa ukuba inkululeko igcinwe kuphela ukuba umthetho, umphathi ophezulu, kunye namagunya owiso-mthetho ebebanjwe yimizimba eyahlukileyo. Imodeli kaMontesquieu ephenjelelwa kakhulu ngabalawuli boMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owasungula inkqubo eyahlulwayo ngokuhlola nokulungelelanisa. Ingcamango engundoqo yayisithi "igunya kufuneka lihlolwe ukuchasa" isebe ngalinye lize ukuchasana kweminye.

Noko ke, kwanabasebenzi baqaphela ukuba ulwahlulo olupheleleyo lwalungafumaneki. UJames Madison, kumthetho oyi-FLT:0. 47, baphawule ukuba ukuqokelelwa kwamandla ezandleni ezifanayo yayibubuzwilakhe, kodwa "uxubo olupheleleyo" lokudibanisa amagunya lwalungaphepheki kwaye luyingenelo. Umzekelo, amandla kamongameli ekugqibeni umthetho nendima yendlu yendlu yendlu emisayo ayethetha ukuba imisebenzi iyabelana.

Ukwenziwa Kwesebe Lorhulumente

Ukuze aqonde ungqamaniso, umntu kufuneka aqale aqonde umsebenzi oyintloko wesebe ngalinye:

  • Isebe eliphumezayo: Isebe elisebenzayo, kunye nokusebenzisa imithetho, iziphatha inkqubo yasemzini, iyalela umkhosi, kwaye iphumeza uqingqo-mali. Kwiinkqubo zepalamente, isigqeba esiphetheyo sitsalwa kwindlu yowiso-mthetho, sidala kufutshane-amanqaku apheleleyo okudibana kwabasebenzi.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Isebe elinomthetho osemthethweni: imithetho yesivumelwano, uhlahlo-lwabiwo-mali oluvumelayo, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, kunye nokulawula ulawulo lolawulo oluphezulu. Imithetho isoloko ineenkqubo zekomiti ezitsolisa kwizenzo zempangelo.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Isebe le-judicial: itolika imithetho kunye nomgaqo-siseko, isombulula iimpikiswano, kwaye ihlola ubugqeba bomthetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ngokuqwalasela.

Ngeli xesha ezi nkcazelo zibonakala zicocekile, zikho ngokwenene emhlabeni ziphazamisa imigca. AmaGqibelo asoloko enika abasemagunyeni abalawuli abanegunya; abalawuli abagunyazisayo abanyanzelisa umthetho; yaye maxa wambi iinkundla zidala inkqubo ngenkcazelo zazo. Oku kusebenza kungumongo wamandla angenayo.

Isizathu Sokuba Kungabi Nakuphepheka

Imikhosi emininzi iqinisekisa ukuba ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akunanto igqibeleleyo:

  • [[NTL:0] Izixhobo kunye noManyano: Isebe ngalinye lineendlela zokulinganisela ezinye — isebe eliphetheyo lingawubeka umthetho, indlu yowiso-mthetho ingawuchasa, kwaye ijaji ingenza izenzo ezingento. Oku kuhlola kudala ukuzalana ngenxa yokuba isebe elinye linenxaxheba kumsebenzi ongundoqo welinye.
  • Imisebenzi emininzi karhulumente ifuna intsebenziswano. Uhlaziyo lohlahlo-lwabiwo-mali lubandakanya ukubekwa kwegunya kunye nemvume yendlu yowiso-mthetho; ukudibana kubandakanya izicelo zolawulo kunye nendlu yowiso-mthetho; ukugcinwa komthetho kufuna inkxaso-mali kunye nolawulo.
  • IiNyaniso ezithe ngqo: kumazwana angoku, imingeni enzima yenkqubo — enjengokhuseleko lwesizwe, ulawulo lwezoqoqosho, kunye nempilo yoluntu — ifuna intsebenziswano ye-Gradiyo eninzi. Iipolitiki zeqela nazo ziphazamisa ukwahlukana xa iqela elinye lilawula amasebe alawulayo kunye nowiso-mthetho, ukucutha uhlolo lwe-activesarial.
  • I-Constialigality: inkoliso yomgaqo-siseko iqulathe izithuba okanye amalungiselelo amfiliba angecacileyo amema ukutolikwa, akhokelela kumadabi emfazwe. Umzekelo, umGaqo-siseko wase-US awuchazi nelungelo eliphezulu, nto leyo ekhokelela kwiingxwabangxwaba phakathi komongameli kunye neBhunga.

Imiphumo Emihle Yokuqhwaba Ngokugqithiseleyo

Ngoxa iimbeleko zinokuzala, zikwanikela iingenelo:

  • [[NTL:0] Intsebenziswano eCwangcisiweyo:[ Xa amasebe ebelana ngemisebenzi, ayanyanzeleka ukuba athethe kwaye alalanise, okunokwenzeka kukhokelela kwinkqubo ejikelwe kakuhle. Umzekelo, i-veto ifuna ukuba igqwesi-mpatho kunye nendlu yowiso-mthetho ifumane umhlaba ofanayo okanye ihlelwe phantsi kwemithetho-mthetho.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukungabhabhiswa: ngamandla agqithileyo avumela urhulumente ukuba avumelane neemeko ezingabonwanga. Ngexesha longxamiseko, inyathelo lolawulo lisenokufuneka ukwenza ngokukhawuleza, ngohlolo lowiso-mthetho kunye nogwebo olunika ukuphendula okulandelayo.
  • Ulawulo loMntu oluPhakathi: ngaphaya kwe-lap yenza iingongoma ezininzi zokuhlola. Ukuba indlu yowiso-mthetho iyasilela ukukhangela umphathi onegunya, ijaji ingangena, kwaye ngokuchaseneyo. Oku kuphindaphindwa kungabamba ukuxhatshazwa okunokuthi isebe elinye liphoswe.

Noko ke, ezi nzuzo zixhomekeke kumasebe asebenzisa amandla awo angenanayo ngenkathalo. Xa intsebenziswano iwohloka, ingcinga ezifanayo zinokubangela igrid okanye ingxabano.

Imiphumo Emibi Yamandla Agqithiseleyo

Icala elibi lamagunya angenanayo libaluleke ngokufanayo:

  • Ukudityaniswa nokungasebenzi: imida elawula ulawulo ingakhokelela ekukhupheleni umgudu, ekulibaziseni izigqibo, kunye nemiyalelo ephikisanayo. Ingingqi kunye namashishini asenokuzama ukugqiba ukuba yeyiphi inkampani okanye isebe elinegunya kumbandela othile.
  • [[UMTL:0] Imfazwe enamandla: idla ngokubangela ungquzulwano lwamaqumrhu. I-US iye yabona ungquzulwano oluninzi kumalungelo aphezulu, umlinganiselo we-veto, kunye nokuqinisekiswa kwabagwebi. Iimpikiswano ezinjalo zingaphazamisa urhulumente zize ziphelise ukuthembana kwabantu.
  • IiNkxaso zoMatyala: Xa amasebe amaninzi ebandakanyekile kwisigqibo, kuba nzima ukubeka ityala ngenxa yokungaphumeleli. Umzekelo, ukuba inkqubo yezoqoqosho iyasilela ngenxa yokuba indlu yowiso-mthetho ibambe kancinci kwaye umphathi olawulayo wayenza, abavoti abanokwazi ukuba liliphi isebe elimele libeke ityala.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukuhlanganiswa kolwahlulo: Ukulahlela okuqhubekayo kungenza kuqheleke ukuqokelelwa kwamandla. Kwamanye amazwe, abalawuli baye bandisa impembelelo yabo ekwenzeni imithetho ngemimiselo okanye ngamandla kaxakeka, kunye nemithetho yowiso-mthetho enika igunya ixesha elide.

Ukuxilongwa Kwetyala Kuyadlondlobala

Imizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene 88 ibonisa iintlobo ngeentlobo zamandla angenanayo kwiinkqubo zomGaqo-siseko:

EUnited States: Uyilo Lwamandulo Lweecheke

UMgaqo-siseko wase-US udla ngokuchazwa njengesambuku samagunya ahlukeneyo, kodwa ububanzi bungadityaniswa nomthetho. Umongameli uyakwazi ukubeka umthetho, kodwa iKhomishini ingalawula isibini sesithathu sobuninzi. ICanter eqinisekisa ukumiswa komthetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu, kwaye zombini ezi zindlu zifanele zivume izivumelwano. Amagunya omthetho anokubetha iingongoma kunye nezenzo zolawulo njengezongathangameli, ngaloo ndlela iguqula intsingiselo yemithetho. Imodeliyo ingenza iziphumo ezingokunje njengokusetyenziswa kwemiyalelo yegunya ekugqitheni komthetho, okanye ukusetyenziswa kweBhangeno-ofisi ye-filicbu, ukuvala iintambo, kubonisa indlela amandla angenayo anokuba yinkcatho yenkcatho. Imodeli ibonisa ukuba ngoxa umkhosi wase-US uzimisele ukukhuthaza, kwakhona xa ukhuthaniso lwezo lwezopolitiko.

UBukumkani Obumanyeneyo: Ukuhlanganiswa Kwamandla

I-United Kingdom isebenza phantsi kodityaniso lwamagunya, apho isikhulu (ikhathementi) sikhutshwa kwindlu yowiso-mthetho (Parliament). INkulumbuso iyintloko yorhulumente nelungu leNdlu yoLawulo. Oku kufutshane ne-669 kuvumela ukumiswa komthetho okugqibeleleyo kuvumela ukuphumelela okukhoyo koku, kuba umphathi olawulayo anokuthi agunyazise uninzi lwabalawuli. Noko ke, abagxeki baphikisa ukuba igxininisa amandla amakhulu kakhulu kumphathi-mthetho, inciphisa ukuhlolwa kwemithetho yowiso-mthetho. Inkundla ephakamileyo ye-UK (eyamiselwa ngo-2009) ngoku yenza uphengululo lwezomthetho, kodwa iPalamente ihlala ingumlawuli kwaye iyakwazi ukuyeka izigqibo zenkundla ngokudlulisa umthetho omtsha. Oku kudala inkqubo ekhethekileyo apho amasebe olawulo oluphezulu adityalwayo, ngoxa i-judiary inikela i-Adiary i-ejective.

IIndiya: Umthetho wezeejaji

Umgaqo-siseko waseIndiya umisela ukwahlukana okucacileyo kodwa ngokuyalelana ngabom. Umphathi-mikhosi (Oomphathi-mikhosi ophambili) uyinxalenye yendlu yowiso-mthetho (Lok Sabha). UMongameli uyakwazi ukubeka izigwebo ze-promulga xa iPalamente ingekho kwintlanganiso, iphumele ukugunyazisa umthetho. Okwangoku, ikomiti yejaji yaseIndiya iphuhlise amandla anamandla anamandla okuhlola ikomiti kunye nomdla kawonke wonke, ngokufuthi ingena kwimithetho emimandla enjengemithetho yemekobume nenkqubo yokulungisa intolongo. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekumangalelweni ngezityholo zekomiti yezomthetho. Ngeli xesha elinye, i-komiti yemithetho yecawaye yabangela ukuba kungene izigwebo kwiinkundla zokulawula. Umzekelo waseIndiya ubalase indlela yokungena kwemfazwe phakathi kwamasebe, isithiwa egunya ephethe i-grobhedenti.

IJamani: IBhunga loManyano loMgaqo-siseko

IBhasbes Law yaseJamani idala inkqubo karhulumente apho iBundesrat (indlu ephezulu) imele ifumane oorhulumente belizwe kwaye imele ivume imithetho emininzi karhulumente. ICancellor (ukubulala) inyulwa yiBoundestag, idala unxulumano phakathi kwamasebe. INkundla yeQumrhu loMgaqo-siseko (iBundesfesculangstericht) inamagunya amakhulu okuhlola omabini urhulumente kunye norhulumente wokulungelelanisa amalungelo asisiseko. Ngaphezu koko, iNkulawula izithethe ezicacileyo zemithetho esemthethweni nesithethe esiqinileyo somthetho. INkundla isoloko iphulaphula iimpikiswano phakathi korhulumente namasebe, esebenza njengomphathi wemidalithonga. IJamani ibonisa ukuba alungele ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho elungele ukuhlanganiswa ngentlalo-mthetho nentlalo-mthetho.

IFransi: Inkqubo yeSemikharasite

IFransi isebenza phantsi kwenkqubo engamashumi amabini anesithandathu anesithandathu esinesiqingatha se-presidelius apho umongameli onyuliweyo ngokungqalileyo abelana igunya lolawulo kunye nomphathi-mikhosi ophethe iNdibano yeSizwe. Eli lungiselelo lidala ukudibana phakathi komongameli (olawula inkqubo yelinye ilizwe kunye nokhuseleko) kunye nomphathiswa wephondo (oqhuba inkqubo yasekhaya). Xa iqela lomongameli lingalawuli indibano — imeko eyaziwa ngokuba “kukulawulwa kwegunya eliphezulu” — amandla alwa ligunya elilawulayo ayaqina. IBhunga loMgaqo-siseko lisebenza njengovavanyo lomthetho, liqwalasela umthetho phambi kokuba u-Grejiste. Imodeli yesiFrentshi ibonisa indlela amandla anokungenayo ezinto zombini zobu tyo kunye nokungazinzi, kuxhomeke kulungelelwano lwezopolitiko lwamasebe.

Ukulawula Ukuwa Ngokugqithiseleyo: Imiqathango Yolungelelwano

Oorhulumente baye benza izixhobo eziliqela zokuthintela amandla angenayo ukuba angapheli abe yingxaki:

  • Izicwangciso zomGaqo-siseko ocacileyo: ngokucacisa ububanzi begunya lesebe ngalinye bunciphisa ukungacacanga. Umzekelo, umGaqo-siseko wase-US udwelisa amagunya eBhunga kwiGatya I, kodwa i-Iafly ne Seat Claus imema ukutolikwa. Umgaqo-siseko othe kratya, njengomthetho osisiseko weJamani, unika ukhokelo olubanzi.
  • [[NTLT:0] IiKomiti ze-InterÍBranch kunye noNxibelelwano: iinkqubo zobuGcisa zinokucombulula iimbambano ngaphambi kokuba zikhule. I-US ine-Ofisi yeNkcubeko yoLawulo noHlahlo-mali lweNkqutyana ye-Congrega ye-Unionshorts ukubonelela ukuphatha kwemithetho-siseko; iikomiti ezidityanisiweyo kwezinye iindlu zowiso zivumela intsebenziswano.
  • Impinda yeQumrhu neMigaqo-siseko: Iinkundla ezinokusombulula iimfazwe phakathi konyaka wekhulu lewaka elinamashumi amathathu anesibini linendima ephambili. INkundla ePhakamileyo eIndiya, iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko eManyathelo eJamani, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo eUnited States isoloko iphulaphula ukwahlulwa komatyala angama-252206. Isigqibo sayo simisela imida enciphisa ungquzulwano olukhoyo kwixesha elizayo.
  • Beka u-Claus kunye ne-Delegation Milimes: Xa izikhulu zowiso-mthetho ziphathisa umthetho 2016 zigunya kumasebe aphetheyo, zingaquka iirejista zokutshona kwelanga eziphelisa abathunywa emva kwexesha elimisiweyo, zinyanzelisa ukuphinda zibhalwe phantsi. Oku kulinganisela amandla omphathi oqokelela amandla asisigxina.
  • Imithetho engekho mthethweni neeNdibano: Imithetho engabhalwanga — njengesithethe enokuthi oomongameli banqande ukusebenzisa iveto ngokuchasene nayo yonke imali, okanye ukuba abalawuli abaphambili bajongana nePalamente phambi kokuba benze izigqibo ezingundoqo zemithetho yamanye amazwe — zingabangela ungquzulwano oluphakathi. Noko ke, imigaqo ibuthathaka kwaye ingakwazi ukuphelisa phantsi koxinzelelo lwe-RGB.

Indima Yecudis Kwimida Ekhuthazayo

Iinkundla zidla ngokuba ngabalawuli abaphambili xa kuvela amagunya adibanayo naxa kuvela ingxabano. Uhlolo lwezejaji luvumela abagwebi ukuba bafumanise ukuba isebe liye laligqitha kusini na igunya lalo lomgaqo-siseko. Amatyala ophawu lwelizwe abonisa le ndima:

  • United States v. Nixon [19974], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-US yala ngamxhelo mnye ukuchaza kukaMongameli uNixon ilungelo elipheleleyo lokulawula, imyalela ukuba akhuphe iikhasethi zeWatergate. Oku kwaqinisekisa ukuba ijaji inyanzelisa isebe eliphetheyo ukuba lithobele inkqubo esemthethweni.
  • Indiya, Kesavanda Bharati v. Urhulumente waseKerala (1973], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka imfundiso esisiseko, imisela ukuthintelwa kwamandla ePalamente okuphelisa umgaqo-siseko nokuqinisekisa ngokuphumelelayo ubungangamsha bomthetho-siseko.
  • , iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yoManyano iphinde yawisa imithetho echasene namalungelo asisiseko okanye umlinganiselo wesizwe, iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente worhulumente okanye urhulumente akadluli kumandla awo adwelisweyo.

Ungenelelo lwezenkundla luneengozi. Iinkundla ezithi zibe nengcwangu ngokugqithiseleyo zisenokuqalisa ukudibana nemisebenzi yowiso-mthetho neyolawulo oluphezulu, zidala ijelo elitsha lokunikel

Isiphelo

Amandla okuqhwaba angaphezulu ayinto engenakuphepheka yolawulo lwale mihla lomgaqo-siseko. Nangona intsingiselo yokwahlukana okungqongqo isanempembelelo, imfuneko esebenzayo yokukhangela, intsebenziswano, kunye nobubhetyebhetye iqinisekisa ukuba amasebe aza kukhuphisana kwimisebenzi eyahlukeneyo. Iziphumo zokudibanisa izinto ezisebenzayo nokuziphendulela kwintsebenziswano kunye nokulwa kolawulo. Ukulawula le misebenzi kufuna imithetho ecacileyo, ukukhuthaza ukucaciswa kwekomiti, ukuxoxa ngengxoxo yezomthetho, kunye nezithethe zezobupolitika ezijongene nemidabini. Njengoko ulawulo-demokhrasi lusenza ingxeko, imbambano ayiyi kusiniki ukudibanisa, kodwa indlela yokuzibophelela ezinokuquququzelisa, kunokuthoba, ulawulo lwedemokhrasi.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kokwahlulwa kwamagunya namagunya angenanayo, bona umGaqo-siseko we-US, iCornell Information of thege Institute ye-[, kunye [[FLT] SS [FLT]]