Amatyala Aphakamileyo ENkundla Nempembelelo Yayo Ehlala Ikho Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla EMerika

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ibisoloko isebenza njengenkqubela-siseko sentsingiselo yokugqibela, ibumba ukunikezelwa kwegunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente naphakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. Ngothotho lwezigwebo zemiqondiso, iNkundla iphinda ichaze imida yesebe, yemithetho yowiso-mthetho, kunye namandla okugweba ngoxa iphinda inyusa okanye ibeka umlinganiselo wamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ukuqonda la matyala kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuba inkqubo yezovavanyo nolungelelwaniso lwamaMerika ivela njani ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa izigqibo eziliqela ezibalulekileyo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ukuhlolisisa iziseko zayo ezingoonolwazi olungokwasemthethweni, iimeko zembali, kunye neziphumo ezihlala ixesha ukwenzela ulungelelwano lwamandla eUnited States.

Isiseko seResolution: Marbury v. Madison (103)

Akukho tyala libonisa bhetele indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekuchazeni igunya layo kune- Madison .. Imbambano yavela kwisiphithiphithi sezobupolitika ejikeleze unyulo lomongameli wekhulu le-1800. Emva kokuphulukana noThomas Jefferson, uMongameli John Adams ophumayo umisele inani labagwebi beFederali, kuquka uWilliam Marbury njengekhankatho loxolo. Xa unobhala we-Romster James Madison wavuma ukuhambisa umsebenzi ka Marbury, Marbury wabongoza iNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-mandamus, exhomekeke kwiCandelo le-13 loMthetho we-Judiary ka-1789.

IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall wajongene nemeko enzima yezobupolitika. Umyalelo ongqalileyo kuMadison wawuza kutyeshelwa, uthobe iNkundla. Endaweni yoko, Marshall wavakalisa ukuba Icandelo 13 loMthetho weJadicary yayingekho semthethweni kuba yandisa igunya lantlandlolo leNkundla ngaphaya koko iQumrhu III lomGaqo-siseko likuvumela. Ngokwenjenjalo, uMadrall waseka umgaqo wophindo lwezomthetho [[FLT:] olukwicandelo [[FLT:]]

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • Isigqibo saqinisa ijaji njengesebe elilinganayo, elikwaziyo ukukhangela iBhunga kunye nomongameli.
  • Ukubekwa kwecala lobungangamsha bomgaqo-siseko:[[FT:1] [] ngokugxininisa ukuba “kugxininisa iphondo lesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko,". Marshall uhlolo lwetyala olufakelwe kulawulo lwaseMelika.
  • Iziphumo zexesha elide: Marbury v. Madison uhlala lityala lesiseko leNkundla ukuphelisa imithetho yesizwe neyorhulumente, amandla eliwaqhubeka lisebenzisa phantse phantse onke amaxesha.

UMandla oBuzwe noMhle kaClaus: McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Kwirepublic yokuqala, imbambano yegunya likarhulumente nelorhulumente yaphikiswa kakhulu. Xa iBhunga leSibini leUnited States ngowe - 1816, uMaryland labeka irhafu kwimisebenzi yebhanki kwimida yayo. UJames McCulloch, owayesebenzisa imali ebhankini, wala ukuhlawula irhafu, nto leyo eyakhokelela kwityala elanyanzela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba ifikelele ulawulo lukarhulumente.

IJaji enkulu uMarshall yanikela imbono engqinelanayo eyathetha imibandela emibini engundoqo. Okokuqala, wayekholelwa ukuba iKhomishini yayinamagunya athethwayo phantsi . UNicasary noMhleko weSiqumrhu I, Icandelo 8. Ngoxa uMgaqo-siseko ungagunyazi ibhanki, iyayinika iBhunga amandla erhafu, ukuboleka, kunye nokulawula urhwebo (*) kwaye ibhanki yesizwe yayiluncedo neluncedo ekuphumezeni ezo njongo. Okwesibini, Marshall wabiza u-Claus Claus [[FLT:]] u-Slabel.

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • igunya eliphangaleleyo lezwe: McCulloch yaseka imfundiso yamandla achaziweyo, inika iBhunga elibanzi ingqiqo yokukhetha iindlela zokufeza imisebenzi yalo engokomGaqo-siseko.
  • [ Ubukhulu be-Federal buqinisekisiwe: Umthetho othintelweyo kumazwe ekusebenziseni amandla awo okurhafisa ukuphazamisana namaqumrhu karhulumente, uqinisa ulwalamano olukwizikhundla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente.
  • Ushicilelo oluluhlaza lwamva lolwandiso: Le meko yanika isiseko somgaqo-siseko sokwandisa amandla karhulumente kwiindawo ezifana nolawulo lwezoqoqosho, intlalo-ntle, kunye namalungelo abantu.

Ukudibanisa Umahluko kodwa Ulingana: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Indima yeNkundla ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu kunye nokubuyisela inkqubo yentlalo efikelele uphawu oluphezulu -Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Ityala laququzelela izibonelelo ezihlanu ezahlukeneyo ezicelw'ucelw'ucago lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke. Phantsi “ezingafaniyo” imfundiso esungulwe .V[FLT][FLT] [1896] [96], lathi lagcina izibonelelo zemfundo ezicaciweyo zabafundi abaMnyama nabamhlophe. Amarhafu, amelelwe nguThrever Marshall noNaA-Spective, iphikisa ukuba abantwana abamnyama abadanjiweyo nabaHlunyuki bokwano-NTS.[FLD][5]

IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren wabhala isigqibo esivumelanayo esagatya umgaqo “ohlukeneyo kodwa olinganayo” kwimfundo. Ithembele kubungqina benzululwazi yentlalo yokuba ucalulo lwezimvo zobuphantsi, iNkundla yavakalisa ukuba“ amaziko emfundo ahlukeneyo awalingani ngokwemvelo.” Isindululo esifunekayo sokukhetha isantya “ngesonke eso ngabom,” ibinzana elavumela ukuphunyezwa ngokuthe ngcembe kodwa nokokuba liqalise ukuguqula ngokunzulu ibutho lamaMelika.

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • [[FLT: 0] UbuJudicist kunye notshintsho lwentlalo: Brown wabonakalisa ukuvuma kweNkundla ukusebenzisa igunya layo ukubhukuqa amalungiselelo entlalo akudala emile kwaye unyanzelise iziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko.
  • Ukunyanzeliswa kwamagosa asemthethweni nxamnye nokuchaswa kwesizwe: Isigqibo sabangela umthetho olandelayo, kuquka uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo oQhubekekileyo ka-1965, kwaye ngokufuthi kwafuna iinkundla zorhulumente ukuba zongamele izicwangciso zokuqulu-hlanga.
  • Izahlulo zocalulo olusekelwe kumalungelo: Brown wavula ucango lweminye imiba emininzi ebandakanya ukhuseleko olulinganayo, ukusuka kucalulo lwesini ukuya kulingana.

Imfihlo, i-Autonomy, kunye neQiniso elingagungqiyo: Roe v. Wade (1973)

Zimbalwa izityholo eziye zadala impikiswano engapheliyo njenge Roe v. Wade. Ityala libandakanya umthetho we-Texas owarhoxisa ukuqhomfa okuninzi ngaphandle kwalawo afunekayo ukusindisa ubomi bomfazi. “Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey) wawucel ulucel uxanduva lomthetho, ephikisa ukuba uphule ilungelo lakhe lomgaqo-siseko kwi-mfilo. Inkundla Ephakamileyo, kuluvo olubhalwe nguJaji Harry Blackmun, lwavuma.

Inkundla yathi ilungelo lokuzimela, ngexa lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, licacile kwi- i-Seed Procession Clause yoMgqibo weshumi elinesine weSigqibo sokwaHlutya-guqulwa. Le “iingcamango ye-eye-onkini" iqwalaselwe kwiimeko zangaphambili ezifana Grisrold v. Connecticut[ [1965], eyaphelisa ukuvalwa kothintelwa kokuthintela inzala. Roe wamisela isiseko esilungelelanisa ulungelelaniso lwemeko yebhinqa nxamnye nezilangazelelo zempilo yomama kunye nobomi, ivumela umthetho omkhulu kamva kwisigaba sokumitha.

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • Ukuququzelelwa kwenkqubo encinci ekwindawo esezantsi: Roe yabonisa ukuba iNkundla izakukhusela amalungelo asisiseko angakhuselwanga, iqhubekeka nesithethe esandiswa emva Lochner v. New York (11905] kunye nangaphambili Obergecrell v. Hodeges
  • Isizwe. Amalungelo ngamanye: Amandla amiselweyo alawulayo okuthintela ukuqhomfa, ukususa umlinganiselo wamandla kurhulumente obekelwe imithetho kunye nakumgwebi kunye nomntu ngamnye.
  • Ukugqiba ukwenziwa ngaphaya kwecandelo lezobupolitika: Roe yaba yindawo ekhawulezileyo kumadabi okuqinisekisa okugweba kwaye yakhuthaza amashumi eminyaka engxoxo ngomkhamo ofanelekileyo wovavanyo lokugweba,(-] amasuntswana aphumele ekugqityweni kwesigqibo esigqithisileyo Dobs v. Jackson Avens Health Organization [2022]).

Ukusikelwa Imiqathango Kwamandla Alawulayo: United States v. Nixon (1974)

Imposiso iwatergate yabeka umgaqo wokuba “akukho mntu ongaphezulu komthetho” kolona luvavanyo lwayo lubalulekileyo. Xa umtshutshisi okhethekileyo wafuna iitepi ezirekhodiweyo zencoko kaMongameli Richard Nixon, uNixon wathi ilungelo lokubulala [ wamvumela ukuba avumele iikhasethi ukuba akhusele unxibelelwano olufihlakeleyo lomongameli. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, kwisigqibo esidibeneyo se-8-10, yalandula elo tyala.

IJaji eyintloko uWarren Burger yavuma ukuba ilungelo eliphakamileyo lalikho ngenxa yokhuseleko okanye imicimbi yezobuzwe echukumisekayo kodwa yathi alinakusetyenziswa ukufihla ubungqina kwityala lolwaphulo - mthetho. INkundla yayalela uNixon ukuba akhuphe iikhasethi, ekugqibeleni ezathi zatyhila ukuba nenxaxheba kwakhe kwigqubuthelo lokhuseleko lwasebuchotsheni zaza zakhokelela ekubeni arhoxe.

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • Iziphumo kwigunya lomongameli: United States v. Nixon wamisela ukuba umongameli uphantsi kwenkqubo yokugweba kwaye ilungelo eliphezulu aliphelelanga.
  • Uphatho lwenkonzo lwesebe eliphetheyo: Isigqibo saqinisa indima yeenkundla ekunyanzeleni umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho nxamnye namagosa aphezulu, simisela umzekelo osetyenziswayo kamva kuphando nakwimicimbi yokungaququzeli.
  • ukunikezelwa kwemali kunye nomthetho: Umthetho waba sisiseko somGaqo-siseko waseMelika, ebonisa ukuba kwaneyona sikhundla sinamandla kwelo lizwe kufuneka siphendule kwigunya elisemthethweni.

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo nomgangatho womtshato: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Indaleko yamalungelo asekuhlaleni yafikelela kwincopho entsha i-Obergefell v. Hodges, ebambe ukuba izibini ezingokwabelana zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata phantsi komthetho Imodeli Yomdla ka Claus kunye [FLT] ne [FLT:] Equal Inqandal Clause[ yementemestmestmediation. Umzekelo wadibanisa imingeni emininzi yokuvalela uvalelo kumtshato osuka eMichigan, Ohio, eKentecky, kunye noTessesseev.

IJaji uAnthony Kennedy wabhala uluvo lwabaninzi, egxininisa ukuba “ilungelo lokutshata lilungelo elisisiseko elizuzwe kwinkululeko yomntu.” Inkundla yaqiqa ngelithi ukungazifaki izibini ezingokwabelana ngesondo emtshatweni kwazithoba isidima saza sabeka ityala“ lokuzisusa” lokuba umGaqo-siseko awunakukwazi ukunyamezela. Isigqibo safuna ukuba onke amagunya anikezele ukubhalisa izibini ezingo zomtshato ezingokwasexeni kunye nokuvuma iqhina lomtshato owenziwe kwezinye imimandla.

Impembelelo Ekulungelelaniseni Amandla

  • Ukukhutshwa kwamalungelo asisiseko: IObergefell yaqhubela phambili isithethe seNkundla sokwamkela imilinganiso emitsha yenkululeko phantsi kweNkqubo ka Claus, ukusuka kwi-bom ku gristold kunxulumano olusenyongweni kwi [[FLT:]4] Lawrence v. Texas
  • [[NTLA] Isisombululo se-Judicic sengxoxo yesizwe: ngokucombulula umbuzo wokulingana komtshato ngokwemeko-ntle, iNkundla ekhutshiweyo yemithetho yomgangatho karhulumente kunye nesenzo sowiso-mthetho, ikhupha ukugxekwa kwabo baphikisa ukuba utshintsho olunjalo lwentlalo lufanele lufike ngeenkqubo zedemokhrasi.
  • Uxanduva oluqhubekayo ngendima yokugweba: Ulwahlulo 5-4 lwabalaselisa ulwahlulo olukufutshane kwiNkundla kumgangatho ofanelekileyo wamandla okugweba (icandelo eliqhubeka libumba umgaqo-siseko wexesha elinye.

Iimpawu Zongezelelekileyo: Ukulungelelanisa Ulungelelwano Lwale Mihla

Ngaphezu kwala matyala asisiseko, ezinye izigqibo eziliqela ziye zachaphazela kakhulu ukwabiwa kwamandla eUnited States.

Abemi Manyene/-5.Umsebenzi woPhuhliso (2010)

Ityala lamaZwe amanyeneyo v. FEBC, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi inkululeko yokuGqibela yoQoqo-magama yokuqala ithintela urhulumente ekuthinteleni inkcitho yezopolitiko ezimeleyo yemibutho, imibutho, kunye nezinye izinxulumani. Isigqibo esi-5/4 se-Bipartisan Campaical Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) kwaye ivumele ukusetyenziswa ngokungenasiphelo ekubhengezeni kwezobupolitika, ukuba singadibani nakulwa nephunyezo.

  • isebenza ngamandla ezobupolitika:[ Izakhamuzi ezimanyeneyo zandisa ngokuphawulekayo indima yemali kunyulo, zinika abanikeli abazizityebi kunye nezilangazelelo zequmrhu loshishino ngempembelelo yemali kulawulo lwedemokhrasi.
  • Umahluko phakathi kwentetho nomthetho: Umthetho wandisa umlinganiselo wokukhuselwa koMphetho wokuqala kwimibutho ejongene nemicimbi yezorhwebo, ukuqhushumbisa okuqhubekayo kweengxoxo ngokuhlaziywa kwezemali kunye nokutolikwa kwentetho yezobupolitika.
  • [[UTLL:0] uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: Isishwankathelo seMasipala United v.FEC

Shelby County v. Hoker (203)

Selby County v. Hoker, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa phantsi ilungiselelo elingundoqo loMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965. ICandelo lesi-4 loMthetho lalinenkcazelo echaza ukuba yeyiphi intetho elawulayo kunye nemimandla enembali yobuhlanga kufuneka ifumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokuba itshintshe imithetho yokuvota. Inkundla, kwisigqibo esingu-5/4, yabambelela ekubeni le fomu yayingavumelani nemithetho eshwankaniswe ngenxa yokuba ixhomekeke kwinkcazelo ephelelwe lixesha ukususela koo 1960 no1970.

  • Isenzo kunyanzelo lwamaqumrhu: Umthetho waphazamisa ngokunempumelelo imfuneko yokucacisa, ukuguqula umlinganiselo wamandla ubuyele kumazwe ukulawula unyulo lwabo ngaphandle kokuvelela kwemithetho.
  • Iziphumo zeFOLT:0 `FEderalis'':[ iShelby County iqinisekisiwe ulawulo lukarhulumente kulawulo lonyulo, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ikhokelele kwimiqathango yokuvota emitsha echaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto abavoti abambalwa.
  • [[UMTLL: 0] uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: [[UMTLL:2]] Cornell Information Institute component [[FLT: 3]]

Inkundla Ephakamileyo Nokulungelelana Okumanyeneyo Kwamandla

Amatyala achazwe ngasentla abonisa indima ephambili yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ekusasazeni amandla kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Ngeemfundiso ezinjengohlolo-nkqubo lokugweba, amagunya ajolise ekuboneni, inkqubo efunekayo, kunye nelungelo eliphezulu, iNkundla iye yandisa yaza yanyanzelisa igunya lamanye amasebe kunye namazwe. Ezi zigqibo azikho kwindawo engenagunya. Zibonisa impembelelo yezopolitiko kunye nezentlalo yamaxesha awo, yaye, ngokunjalo, zilolonga ulawulo lohlanga.

Ngaphezu koko, ulungelelwano lwamandla alukhawulezi. Ukuqamba kweNkundla akutshintshi ncam, kwaye amatyala amatsha ayaqhubeka evavanywa imizekelo emidala. Umzekelo, ukusetyenziswa kweRoe v. Wade eDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) yabuyisela umgaqo wokuqhomfa kumaphondo, ebonisa ukuba kwanezigqibo ezizinzileyo zinokuphinda zincitshiswe. Ngokufanayo, izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla zamandla olawulo kwiimeko ezifana neWest Virginia v. EPA222) zibonisa ukuvavanywa ngokutsha kwegunya lesebe eliphetheyo.

Ukuqonda ukusetyenziswa kwenkundla ePhakamileyo namanye amasebe karhulumente kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda ulawulo lwaseMerika. UMgaqo-siseko, njengoko uMgwebi omkhulu uMarshall waphawula eMcCulloch, “uzimisele ukunyamezela kangangexesha elizayo, kwaye ngenxa yoko, ukuqhelaniswa namatyala ahlukeneyo emicimbi yabantu.” Imiqathango yeposi yokwalatha inika izikhombo zokuzikhusela, ngokuqhubekayo iphinda iphinde iphinde iphinde imise imida yamandla kwi-riphabliki ehlala ingumsebenzi oqhubekayo.

Ukufunda Okungakumbi