Ingulowo umi phantsi kwemiqobo yemeko-ntle yephondo engomnye wemiqobo emikhulu kwiingxuba ekhoyo malunga nomhlala-phantsi kunye neenzuzo zomhlala-phantsi. Isekelwe kwiSinyuko seshumi elinesithoba, le mfundiso ikhusela ekumangalelweni kwinkundla yephondo ngaphandle kwemvume yayo. Kwizigidi zabasebenzi abaxhomekeke kwiinjongo zomgangatho wempesheni ochaziweyo, amandla okunyanzelisa amalungelo omthetho agunyazisiweyo okanye asemthethweni axhomekeke ekubeni urhulumente unikezele kusini na ukhuseleko okanye enoba umthetho karhulumente ugunyaziwe ukuba utshaye wakhutshwe ngokusemthethweni. Njengoko imisantsalo yemali yempehla yemali iyanda kwaye iyingenelo, ukuqonda ukuthintelwa komgangatho ophezulu wokhuseleko lwezigwebi, abasebenzi benkqubo, abasebenzi bemi, nabarhoxiyi bemi, nabarhoxiweyo ngokufanayo.

Imvelaphi yokungahambelani koMmandla weLizwe

Isigqibo sokuzikhusela kolawulo lwelizwe asibhalwanga ngokungqalileyo kuMgaqo-siseko. Endaweni yoko, sivela kwiSindululo seshumi elinesithoba seSihlaziyo, esagunyaziswa ngo-1795 ukubhukuqa iNkundla ePhakamileyo i̱ isigqibo ICholomm- v. IGeorgia[[. Ityala livumele abemi bobucala ukuba bangenise amatyala enkundleni yenkundla yesizwe, baqhushumise umsindo phakathi kwamazwe axhalabileyo ngemipulcan. Umbhalo weA111th Amendmend : Ithiss incinyanisa ityala labemi belinye ilizwe okanye abemi basemzini. Noko ke, iNkuNkundlale ephakamileyo iwutolike ngokuphanga komgam, ibamba [FL:2] v.[FPlain: [18]

Phantsi kwemfundiso yanamhlanje, amatyala anandipha ukukhuselwa ekumangalelweni ngasese equlelweni lenkundla yesizwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuba yiyiphi imo yokuhlala. Oku kuthintelwa kudlulela kumasebe karhulumente nakwizibonelelo, kuquka iimali zikawonke wonke ezithathwa njengezixhobo zomhlala-phantsi wephondo. INkundla iye yagqiba ngokubhekele phaya ukuba ukulondolozwa lilungelo lomgaqo-siseko elithi linokuphazamisa kodwa iBhunga lingaqukuqela kuphela xa liqulungela phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-we-145 wokunyanzelisa amalungelo asisiseko.

Ukujonga ngokunzulu kwiA1th Amendment ’ umbhalo nembali, [[FLT: 0] iCornell Information Information [[FLT: 1] inika isishwankathelo esigunyazisiweyo.

Umanyano lweNtlalo-ntle yoLawulo

Imali yomhlala-phantsi kawonke wonke isetyenziswa ziibhodi okanye amasebe karhulumente, njengeKhalifoniya i-#8217; Inkqubo yokuthatha umhlalaphantsi (i-Calpiers) okanye i-Teachers ’ Inkqubo yokuthatha umhlala phantsi kweTexas. Le minikelo idla ngokugqalwa njengezixhobo zikarhulumente kwaye ngenxa yoko inelungelo lokukhusela ukhuseleko lolawulo. Xa umphambukeli okanye umnikeli wemali yempesheni ebhankini yokukhankanywa intlukwano, ukuqhekezwa kwesivumelwano, okanye ukusetyenziswa kakubi, urhulumente unakho ukuqinisekisa ukuthintelwa kwemali ekwinkundla yesebe.

Izibonda ziphezulu. Ngokutsho kwe uPew Charitables, umhlala-phantsi wemali wemali karhulumente unciphisa iimali ezingaphezulu kwezigidi zezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka wama-2022. Amazwe amaninzi acuthe iinzuzo, iminikelo yabasebenzi enyusiweyo, okanye itshintshwa yamaxabiso okuphila, ekhokelela ekuhlaliseni abahlali abachasayo abathi besenza ezi nguqu zizenzekele phantsi kwesivumelwano. Ukhuselo lwezo zinto zidla ngokuzithintela kwiinkundla zelizwe, inyanzelela abaqeshi bemi bemi kumthetho yelizwe apho imiqathango ye-oyile okanye yokuzikhusela imoyekelela iinqobo isenokuhluka.

Kubalulekile ukuba, umahluko phakathi kwemiba yemibutho karhulumente neyasekuhlaleni. Imali yomhlala-phantsi elungiselelwe liphondo okanye isixeko isenokungakunandiphi ukukhusela ulawulo olunye njengokuba umntu esebenza ngurhulumente ngokwawo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. icaciswe kwi- yeNowester Inshorensidensis Co. v. Chatham County[[FLT:] [200] [2006] ukuba ukukhusela koorhulumente basekuhlaleni kuxhomekeke kumgangatho wokulawula kwesizwe nokuba ngabagweba kungayi kuhlawulwa na. Imali yoluntu ezininzi zemali yemali yomnikelo karhulumente ifumaneka kumgangatho opheleleyo, ngoko ke bafumana ukhuseleko olupheleleyo.

Ukungenelela Komthetho Womanyano NowasebuRhulumenteni

Umaleko onzima ovela xa iimpikiswano zempesheni zibandakanya umthetho karhulumente. IBhunga linamandla okukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe olumandundu phantsi koLawulo lwe-14th Amendment, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iwasikelele ngokupheleleyo amandla. Umzekelo, Kimel v. IBhunga laseFlorida leRegents [2000], iNkundla yabambelela kwelokuba iNkathi yeXesha lokuTshiciselwa kweMsebenzi (ADEA) ayinako ukukwazi ukuwahlula ngokusemthethweni ukhuseleko lwe-Brobo ngenxa yokuba yayingeyongenelelani kwimo yemo ye-liventionences. Noko ke, iNkundla iye yaphakamisa ukupheka okufana nemimiselo enjengemimiselo yeNtsasapho neKyezomkhosi (ukuzilungiselela ii-ASMS) kunye namalungelo e-ES (USCS).

UMSEBENZIRA ufaneleke ngokukhethekileyo kwiimbambano zomhlala-phantsi kawonke-wonke kuba kufuneka ukuba kunikwe amatyala amagqala abuyelayo ngexesha alichithe kwimisebenzi esebenzayo. . KwiSebe le-Texas loKhuseleko loluntu [2022], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibonise ukuba iyavuma ukuba i-suths phantsi koMSEBENZI, xa inika uphawu lolwandiso lwemali yemali ye-oventi. Sekunjalo, i-USAURA ngummiselo omxinwa; uninzi lwemali ye-mali ye-mali ye-mali ye-mali isekelwe kumthetho karhulumente okanye kummiselo worhulumente, apho ukusetyenziswa komthetho worhulumente kungasebenzi.

Isitshixo Esikhethekileyo Kulawulo Oluphezulu

Nangona kukho umlinganiselo omkhulu womzimba ozikhuselayo, iindlela eziliqela zivumela abantu abadla umhlala-phantsi nabanye abathathi-nxaxheba ukuba bafune uncedo ngokuchasene nemali yomhlala-phantsi karhulumente:

I-Expoint Wair ebizwa ngokuba yiRhulumente

Amatyala amaninzi anokungawafuni amatyala okhuseleko ohlobo oluthile lwentengiso, ngokukodwa ukwaphuka kwesivumelwano. Umbuso ungavuma ukufaneleka kwiinkundla zawo ngomthetho okanye nge utheth'tort wenza [ okanye amatyala athenjiwe asebenza [. Umzekelo, iNkundla yaseNew York ̱ iNkakhululo ye-Pinters Actives Active souciations for contromationstions profices joctal, iquka izivumelwano ezinxulumene nempeyini. Kodwa, iintambo ezinjalo zidla ngokungeniswa nenkundla yezomthetho yezokhuselo yenkundla yezoshishino zezo zezomthetho-ognethi yezoshishino okanye i-odpointerreat [1999] ngokungenzeka nje ngokungeyokungeyo.

Ukuhlaziywa yiNkqutyana Phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States isenokuwuyeka ukhuseleko lombuso xa iqinisekisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko afana nokhuseleko olulinganayo okanye inkqubo efanelekileyo. Ubunzima bubokuba iimpikiswano ezininzi zomhlala-phantsi zibandakanya ii-odonga ezingezomhlala-phantsi kodwa amalungelo omthetho ogunyaziswayo asungulwe ngurhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. iseke ikudala ikholelwa ukuba iContract Claus (iCandelo I, Icandelo 10) lisebenza kuphela kwiimeko, kodwa igalelo alivumeli nelungelo lobucala lokukhomba ekukhoseleni inkundla yephondo ngendlela efanayo neCandelo lowe-19984. Inkundla iye yala ukuvumela iCandelo lokwaphula umthetho othe ngqo, icaphula i-[FLwe-Plate: 0] kodwa i-Penterrsters State & v Hospitalkt. Halman[F1] [F1]

Imfundiso Epheleleyo Encinane

Le mfundiso inikela umahluko obalulekileyo: igosa likarhulumente elikwinkundla yesizwe elilindele ukupheliswa kwenkululeko engapheliyo yokuphelisa ukwaphulwa ngokuqhubekayo komthetho karhulumente. Igosa lithathwa njengomntu ofanelwe kuvumelana neNkcubeko yoLawulo lweshumi elinesine. Umzekelo, ukuba iqumrhu loMlawuli wempempe-mhlala-phantsi we-Emperence liyaphula i-MFUSSRA okanye umbutho wasekuhlaleni unelungelo lomgaqo-siseko, umphambukeli unokuwa kumalungu ebhodini kumgangatho wabo osemthethweni wokuyalela ukuba bafumane iingenelo zokubala kwakhona.

Imfundiso ye-Ex Parte Young ayivumeli ukubhaliswa kwemali ngomonakalo owenziwe ngokutsha. Ukuba umhlala-phantsi ufuna iingenelo ezisemva okanye ukulungiswa, ukukhusela ukulawulwa kwemali kusekhona ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uyilahle. Ezinye iziphaluka ziye zavumela umonakalo phantsi kwemimiselo ethile karhulumente, kodwa umgca unzima.

Ukuqhubeka Kwemali

Irejista ayikunandiphe ukukhuselwa kwemali ewiswe yimali eninzi kwinkundla ewiswa ngurhulumente phantsi kweCandelo 106 leBhankiptic Code. Oku kwaqinisekiswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi iCentral Virginia Community College v. IKatz (2006]. Ukuba intlawulo yemali yempesheni yemali inqabile (inqabileyo zwana kurhulumente, nangona inokwenzeka kwimali yempesheni yasekuhlaleni), okanye ukuba umphambukeli uthelekele ephuthile kwaye ufuna ukukhulula ityala elityala eliboletwa ngurhulumente, nokokuba, amatyala anqabileyo ayaphelelwa; amaxesha amaninzi, umhlala phantsi unokuzama ukuzibiza ngemali yemali karhulumente emali engekho ngokwezimali ephakathi komqeshiciweyo (umzekelo, okanye isixeko) esihlala isongeso.

Iingxaki Ezingokwasemthethweni Kwabo Badla Umhlala - phantsi

Abathatha umhlala phantsi bajongene nengxaki yesakhiwo xa ukhuseleko oluphezulu lukhuliswa. Kwanaxa benesivumelwano esinamandla phantsi komthetho karhulumente, kufuneka basebenzise igxalaba lokhuseleko lomzimba. Ezi ziingcinga eziqhelekileyo zomthetho kunye nemiqobo yabo:

Ukhuthuzo lweKhontrakthi

Iinzuzo ezininzi zemali yomhlala-phantsi zithathwa njengezingagunyaziswanga kumalungelo kawonke-wonke phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Ngokwezichazwe ngokuba nento yokungathathi-nxaxheba, abathatha umhlala-phantsi bangamangalelwa kwinkundla yetyala likarhulumente. Kodwa kwinkundla yephondo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo u-Contracle ayingomthombo wamalungelo azimeleyo. Imali yomntu othatha umhlala-phantsi ixhomekeke kuma- 42.S.C. . . .649, i-1998 , i-1998 ye-1998, i-1998 01.INkunye iNkundla ePhakatle i-Nkundlekakhulu ibekwe kwi . Ityala elinoneeze lifakwe kwi-RGenethi ye-Genethi. [FLT:] [1885]) yaye kamva iimeko ezithenjiwe-19984341] aziyiphumezi izibhengezo ezithi ze-oaasethi ze-oventi: ii-oansponsixmentans ezithensians ezi

Ulwahlulo Lolungiselelo

Umgaqo othembisa ngakumbi karhulumente yinkqubo efunekayo yokulungisa. Ukuba urhulumente utshintsha inkqubo yomhlala-phantsi ngaphandle kwesaziso okanye ithuba lokuviwa, abathatha umhlala-phantsi bangazizisa iCandelo lowe-1914 Ukuchasana koMphetho-mvakaliso. Imfundiso yeEx Pare Young ibiya kuvumela ukubuyiselwa kwenkqubo zangaphambili. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inenkqubo elinganiselweyo efunekayo kwimimiselo yezoqoqosho, ngoko ukunciphisa okugqibeleleyo okuyingenelo akusoloko kungqubana nenkqubo efanelekileyo ngaphandle kokuba isongelo sisothusa.

Imisebenzi Esetyenziswa Ziziko Nentembelo

Ezinye iinkundla ziphatha imali yomhlala-phantsi njengezinto ezithenjiweyo, nemeko njengeyokuthenjwa. Ukuba urhulumente uyixhaphaze le ngxowa-mali, abangeneli bayo bangamangalelwa ngenxa yokwaphulwa komsebenzi wokuzimela. Ukhuselo lolawulo lungavala ukumangalelwa okunjalo enkundleni yenkundla yesizwe, kodwa ezinye iinkundla zelizwe zikholelwa ukuba ulwalamano oluthembekileyo luthetha ukunikezela. Umzekelo, i-Illinois Court ePhakamileyo kwi-McNamee v. Urhulumente we-Illinois [2010]) uvumele isaphulo esichasene norhulumente sokwaphula umthetho we-mali yemali ekwahlulele ukuphatha imali yomhlala-mali, ukuqiqashela ukuba imeko ithathe imisebenzi yomthembiso kwaye ivume. Ezinye izigqibo ezithelekelelo.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nohlolisiso Loonobumba

Ilizwe elisemthethweni liyatshintsha. Amatyala ambalwa aziwayo akutshanje abonisa uxinezeleko phakathi kwamalungelo okhuseleko oluphezulu namalungelo omhlala-phantsi:

Scott v. Pennsylvania ibhodi yeprobation neParole

Ngo-2021, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasePennsylvania yathetha enoba abasebenzi bakarhulumente babenokumangalela ukunyanzelisa umthetho karhulumente ofuna iminikelo efunekayo kwimali yomhlala-phantsi. Inkundla yathi urhulumente uyakwazi ukukhusela urhulumente ngokumkhusela kwimithetho yoMsebenzi oPhakamileyo ngeKhowudi yePennsylvania, evumela ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi, evumela ukumangalelwa. Noko ke, inkundla yalunciphisa unyango lokukhupha isicombululo, ingena kumonakalo wemali. Eli tyala libalaselisa loo mthetho wokurhoxisa umhlala-phantsi, kodwa umgangatho woncedo usoloko uthe kratya.

Kwinkqubo yokuthatha umhlala-phantsi kwabaqeshwa bakaRhulumente kwakhona (New Mexico)

Iintlawulo zomhlala-phantsi eNew Mexico zamangalela ibhodi yomhlala-phantsi karhulumente ngaphezu kokunciphisa intlawulo ezikhoyo (i-COLA), ziphikisa iinguqu ezaphulwayo ngokwamalungelo azo agunyazisiweyo. Inkundla yeNkundla yaseNew Mexico yezibheno ngo-2019 yafumanisa ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lwezikhundla akuzange kuthintele ukumangalelwa kuba ibhodi yayinomsebenzi owiswayo wokuphatha inkqubo njengentlawulo. Inkundla yayiseka kumthetho karhulumente owawuvumela ngokucacileyo ukuba ishenxiswa ibhodi. Ityala libekwe phambi kwenkundla ephakamileyo inkundla ephakamileyo linokulawula ukukhuselwa.

Amalinge Omanyano Otshintsho

Ngo-2022, iqela le-bipartan kwiBhunga lenza iSigqeba soMqeshwa woMsebenzi Obonisa Ukukhanya, esiquka ilungiselelo elivumela abarhoxi ukuba bangenise imali yomhlala-phantsi kwinkundla yephondo ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwemigangatho yetyala. Ityala alidlulanga, kodwa libonisa ukunxunguphala okukhulayo ngothintelo lokhuseleko. Okwangoku, abanye abaphengululi abasemthethweni baphikisa ukuba ukuthintelwa kwerhafu kungokweengenelo lwerhafu karhulumente kwimali yemali yomhlala phantsi kwe-Internvolution Code Depart 401 Icandelo 401 (a). Akukho nkundla isamkela loo ngcamango.

Isalathisi somsebenzi wePhondo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwemidyarho yempesheni yephondo lwenza umsebenzi weziphumo ezidibeneyo. Abemi abathatha umhlala-phantsi kumaphondo abahlawuli abaphangaleleyo bayakwazi ukufikelela kokusesikweni kunabo basemagunyeni abathi ngonyamezelo. Abenzi benkqubo mabaqwalasele oku kulandelayo:

Umthetho wesiChokotho-zincwadi

Amazwe afuna ukwakha intembelo kubasebenzi bakarhulumente angayimisela imithetho ethintela ukukhuselwa kwemiqathango yempesheni, ubuncinane kwiinkundla zetyala. Amaphondo amaninzi sele eneengcebiso ezinjalo, kodwa asoloko elinganiselwe kwisivumelwano sokufumana inkxaso-mali, angafaki mvume okanye angayifaki kwimiba ye-tort okanye ye-oficury. Ukur-raver inganciphisa iindleko zemali zemali ehlawulwayo kwaye iphucule nokuziphatha.

Ukhuseleko lweNgxowa-mali yokuThemba

Amanye amazwe aye amkela iinguqu zomgaqo-siseko ukuze akhusele iinzuzo zempesheni. Umzekelo, umGaqo-siseko we-Illinois unika inkxaso yempesheni engazukuncitshiswa okanye ingasebenzi. Nangona kungengomthinteli wokhuselo, amalungiselelo anjalo abangela ilungelo elicacileyo lokuba iinkundla zinyanzeliseke xa ukukhusela ukunqanda ukudleka.

Enye impikiswano

Amanye amazwe afuna iimbambano zempesheni ukuze zingene ngokuvalwa okanye ngokukhutshwa kwemiqathango yolawulo ngaphambi kokuba kugwetywe. Eli jelo lingayiphepha imiba yokhuseleko ngenxa yokuba imicimbi yolawulo ayilawulwa yimiqathango yeshumi elinesithoba. Noko ke, ukuba iqumrhu lolawulo ligqiba ngokuchasene nomhlala-phantsi, uhlolo olulandelayo lwekomiti lusenokuthintelwa yiyo inqanda.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwephondo luhlala lungumqobo omkhulu kubantu abathatha umhlala-phantsi nababolekiweyo abafuna ukunyanzelisa amalungelo athile ngokuchasene nemali yomhlala-phantsi kawonke-wonke. Le mfundiso, esekelwe kwiSindululo seshumi elinesithoba nesandisiweyo kwiinkulungwane zeminyaka, ithintela ukumangalelwa nokuthintelwa kwemiqathango yorhulumente neyokungawiswa kwemali yemali yemali yemali eninzi kwinkundla yephondo. Noko ke, ngaphandle koko, iEx Parte Young efundisayo, kunye nokuthoba phantsi kwemithetho ethile yezorhulumente efuna inkxaso elinganiselwe kodwa enenjongo. Njengoko iingcinezelo zemali zemali zemali zemali zinyuka kunye nemali ezinikwa izivumelwano zokhuseleko zikarhulumente ziyaqhubeka.