Ingxoxo emalunga nendlela abagwebi abawuchaza ngayo umGaqo-siseko iye yaba ngumba ophambili kwintetho engokwasemthethweni yaseMerika. Iingcamango ezimbini eziphambili kule ngxoxo zingu ubuhlanga kunye nobundilele bobuzwe [. Ukuqonda ulwalamano lwabo lunceda ukucacisa iimpikiswano eziqhubekayo kutoliko lwezomthetho. Ngoxa zombini iintanda-bulumko zizama ukunyanzela ukunyanzela ukuqiqa ubulumko bomthetho nokuqinisekisa izigqibo ezisemthethweni, uthungelwano lwazo alulula okanye lungaguquguquki. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iziseko lemfundiso yokuqala ethetha ubundilele, kwaye livavanyanisa iingxabano ezibakho xa kufikelelwa kumbono womgwebo wembali womgwebo ongakhethi cala.

Ukuqonda Ubungqina Bokuqala

UbuGawulayo buyinxalenye yeengcamango ezinxulumene nokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko. Emoqukweni, intsingiselo yombhalo womgaqo-siseko yamiselwa ngexesha lokubekwa kwayo. Le ntsingiselo isisigxina inegunya kwaye ifanele inyanzelise abagwebi namhlanje. Intanda-bulumko yavela ngokuphawulekayo ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini njengendlela yokusabela kwisenzo esicacisiweyo seNkundla yaseWarren kunye nezigqibo ezithe kratyaniswayo zeNkundla yeRoe v.

Kukho umahluko omninzi wobuGaqo-siseko, kodwa obenempembelelo kakhulu yinjongo yokuqala kunye nentsingiselo kawonke-wonke yentsingiselo yecala . Injongo yantlandlolo ifuna ukuqonda oko abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko babekukholelwa. Le ndlela yaxhaswa ngamanani afana no-Attorney General Edwin Meese kwaye, kwimo ecacileyo, nguJaji Robert Bork. Ngokwahlukileyo, inkcaza ukuba yintoni umntu onengqondo ngexesha lobalo oluzakuqonda ukuba uthetha okubhaliweyo. Olu hlobo lwabalazwe kakhulu nguJaji Anton Sclie kwaye luye lwaba luneempela yodidi lwe-Centurence, kuquka nabagwebi abaninzi abagwebi be-Trence.

Abaxhasi Abaphambili Neempikiswano Zabo

IJaji Scalia yaphikisa ngelithi ubuGqirha buyeyona ndlela ifanelekileyo yokutolika ngenxa yokuba buyichaphazele inkqubo yedemokhrasi. Ngokunamathela kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo, abagwebi bayakuphepha ukubeka imilinganiselo yabo kwaye endaweni yoko banyanzelisa ukhetho olulwenziwa ngabantu ngabameli babo abanyuliweyo kunye neendibano zokuhlohla. Kwincwadi yakhe AMatter of Postpretation[, Scalia wabhala ukuba ubukhommo bakuqala “bukuphela kwento egcina umGaqo-siseko ungalawulwa nguxwebhu oluphilayo kwimfuno yesizukulwana ngasinye."

IJaji uRobert Bork, Ukucinywa kweMelika , yenza imeko efanayo, ixande ukuba nayiphi na indlela engeyoyamvelo ngokungenakunqandwa ikhokelela abagwebi ukuba babhaxe kwibheri. Imbono kaBork yobundilele yayingqongqo: ijaji mayisebenzise uluvo lwantlandlolo nokuba kuphi na ukuvumelana okanye ukungavumelani neziphumo. Funda ukuphinda uphindo lomsebenzi onempembelelo.

Ukunyuka Kobuqaba Ezinkundleni

UbuGawulayo basuka kwingcamango yemfundo ukuya kuqheliselo lolawulo lwezakhono ngexesha lolawulo lukaReagan. Ukumiswa kukaScalia kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo1986, okwalandelwa nguThomas ngo1991, kwanika inkcazo eqinileyo kwibhedi ephakamileyo. Kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu edluleyo, ukuqiqa kokuqala kuye kwavela kwiimeko eziphawulayo, kuquka [ iDigality of Columbia v. Hella [FLD] [FLT] [2008], apho iNkukhohla yenzelela ixhomekeke kwintsingiselo yokuqala yeSinyuko sesibini sokuHlazilazi loMphetho wokuthwala iinjongo zomqobo. Ngokutsha, uRodlell & Platsonson Association] uBur[Brum] [2] uG.[2]

Injongo Yokungathathi - nxaxheba Kwezogwebo

Ukungabikho kobundilele kwezeejaji ngumgaqo omkhulu wokuba ijaji yangaphambi kokubhalwa kobukho bendalo. Ithi abagwebi bafanele bagqibe amatyala asekelwe kwimigaqo esekelwe kubundilele, emiselwe kwangaphambili yemithetho yezopolitiko, yokuziphatha, okanye uvelwano ngeqela elithile. Ngokwesithethe saseMerika, ukungathathi cala kunxulumene ngokusondeleyo nomthetho: umgwebi ongathathi cala-calucalucalu-calu-calu-calu-calu-calulo usebenzisa umthetho njengoko ubhalwe, hayi njengoko umgwebi efuna ukuba unjalo.

Ukutyunjwa kwemithetho yokungathathi cala kwemithetho yezomthetho-siseko okunempembelelo kakhulu kwavela kuNjingalwazi Herbert Wechsler kwinqaku lakhe lowe-1995: “Imigaqo yezomthetho ye-Neutral.” Wechsler waphikisa ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo mayimise izigqibo zayo kumthetho-mthetho ongekho mgaqo-siseko, ezisetyenziswa ngokunyanisekileyo kuzo zonke iimeko ezifanayo, kwanaxa iziphumo zingekho mthethweni. Wagxeka izigqibo ezifana ne- Brown v. Board yemfundo ngenxa yokusilela ukucacisa imigaqo enjalo, nangona ekugqibeleni waxhasa iziphumo. Sisincoko sencoko yakhe yaqalisa ukuthethwa kwamashumi eminyaka ngoko kuthetha ukuba ngumgwebi.

Ukuba Bucala Njengomthetho Ongqongqo Kukuthanda Kwezogwebo

Kubantu abaninzi abaxhasa ubundilele, ngokuyintloko buyi-galelo. Kufuna ukuba abagwebi bahlule iimbono zabo zobuqu kumthetho. Le njongo iqukwa kwisifungo sokugweba, kwimfuneko yokuzithethelela ngenxa yekhethe, nakwisithethe seembono ezibhaliweyo ezithethelela iziphumo ngokubhekiselele kwigunya elisemthethweni. Ukungathathi cala akuthethi ukuba umthetho ngokwawo awuthathi cala.

Isikolo somthetho senkqubo enxulumene noHenry Hart noAlbert Sacks, sagxininisa ukuba umthetho ngumbutho ogqwethekileyo yaye abagwebi bafanele baqiqe ngokusekelwe kumgaqo. Baphikisa ngelithi ijaji engoondilele ibalulekile ekulondolozeni intembelo kawonke-wonke kwiinkundla. Xa abagwebi bebonwa njengabadlali abanobuphengululi, ukufaneleka kwayo yonke inkqubo engokwasemthethweni kuyatshabalalisa. [[FLT:] ukufunda ngakumbi ngenkqubo esemthethweni yesikolo eHarvard Law Today.

Ulungelelwaniso Lwasebupoliseni Phakathi KobuBhali Nobundilele Bezogwebo

Kumqwalaseli wokuqala, ubungqwino bobuntwini bubonakala bulungelelaniswe ngokwemvelo. Bobabini bagxininisa ukuba abagwebi abamele banyanzelise imilinganiselo yabo. Ubuhlanga buthi bamele banikele indlela yokucacisa ebhaliweyo ``````ijonga intsingiselo engokwembali'''.' ukuba indima yomgwebi kukufumana kuphela oko umGaqo-siseko wawuthetha xa ugunyazisiwe, ngoko ke imilinganiselo yobuqu ayiphumeleli. Oku kanye lilizwi elathethwa nguScalia: “Ijaji esoloko ithanda iziphumo ingumgwebi ongalunganga."

Izazi ngemvelaphi zidla ngokuchaza indlela yazo njengekuphela kwendlela yokufumana ubundilele. Ukungena kobuhlanga, baphikisa ngokuthi, bamema abagwebi ukuba bajonge umGaqo-siseko njengesileti esingenanto. UmGaqo-siseko ophilayo, kwicritique yantlandlolo, akanakuba nobundilele kuba indlela ngokwayo ixhomekeke kwiimbono zomgwebi ngokokuba kutheni okubalulekileyo "ukulawula" okanye “ukujika". Imilinganiselo yoqobo, ngokucaphula imbali ebhaliweyo, ikhangeleka isusa ugwebo olusemthethweni.

Indlela Inkolelo Yobuqaba Esithi Ngayo Ukungathathi Nto

Ukuzalwa kwabefundisi kusebenza ngeendlela eziliqela abathi abo bazixhasayo bakhuthaza ubundilele:

  • Ingcaciso yombhalo ebhaliweyo: intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko yagqitywa ekudityanisweni. Abagwebi abayihlaziyi; bayayisebenzisa.
  • Ubungqina obuyiNtloko: Inkcazelo inyanzelwa zisichazi-magama, iingxoxo zokwahlula, kunye nezixhobo zomthetho zexesha elinye. Umsebenzi womgwebi ungokwembali, awuqheleki.
  • Umsebenzi we-Transsubtive: imithetho yoqobo isebenza ngaphaya kweemeko nakanjani na ukuba zikho okanye iimeko zamaqela. Akukho thuba lolwazelelo okanye ikhethe.
  • Intsingiselo ecwangcisiweyo yomthetho ivumela abemi bakhona ukuba bazi oko kufunwa ngumthetho. Oku kuxelwa kwangaphambili kuphawu lobundilele.

Kwii-freasts, nakuphi na ukushiya intsingiselo yantlandlolo kukushiya ubundilele. IJaji uThomas isoloko ithetha le mpikiswano ngokungavumelaniyo, ityhola uninzi lokuthatha indawo yemithetho yayo ekhethelweyo kumyalelo wokuqala womGaqo-siseko. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), uThomas wabhala ukuba uluvo lukaninzi lomtshato olinganayo “alunasiseko kumGaqo-siseko” kwaye isigqibo sabonisa iimbono zokuziphatha kweNkukhosi kunomthetho.

Iingongoma Ezibangela Ingxaki: Xa Ubukho Bangaphambili Bulucelomngeni Lobundilele

Phezu kwako nje ukulungelelana okucingwayo, ubundilele obuqhelekileyo nobungathathi cala zidla ngokusetyenziswa. Intsingiselo yobundilele ifuna okungakumbi: ijaji imele ingakhethi buso, kodwa ubukho bendalo busenokuzisa ikhethe okanye ukungaqiniseki okungawuthobeli umnqweno wayo.

Ubungqina Obungokwembali Bubonisa Ukuba Kuyinyaniso

Ukungabikho nxaxheba kufuna ukuba kusetyenziswe umthetho njengokuba kunjalo, hayi njengokuba umntu esenokunqwenela ukuba ibe njalo. Kodwa ubungqina bembali busoloko bungacacanga. Inyaniso yokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo eyahlulwe 5-4 ifikelela kwiziphetho eziphikisanayo ngoko kwakuyiyo intsingiselo kawonke-wonke. Umzekelo, abaphengululi nabagwebi bakudala baphikisane ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala yoMmiselo wesibini ikhusela umntu ngamnye okanye ilungelo elidibene nenkonzo yemikhosi. Inyaniso yokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yahlulahlulwe ka-5,4 icebisa ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala ayiveli ngokwayo ngokweempendulo eziziphenduku. Xa ikhuphisana neziphumo zokuqala, umgwebi kufuneka ukhethe phakathi kweengxelo eziqhelekileyo. Oko kuvula isango kuthethwa kumbandela wobukhonziswano.

Ingxaki Yamalungelo Angenazintloni

I-Spreadman ilwa namalungelo angazange akhankanywe ngokucacileyo kule mibhalo. ISinyuko seNinth sithi ukubekwa kwelungelo elithile “akuyi kuthathwa njengokukhanyela okanye ukuhlulwa kwabanye abantu.” Kodwa abaququzeleli banobunzima bokunika ukurhoxiswa okukhoyo ngenxa yokuba ingxelo yembali ithe yahluka. Ijaji epheleleyo ekwimeko yobuzwe. Ngokunjalo isenokufumana ilungelo elithi ``````````sayy'','' okanye ukubucala obusemzimbeni''''. [FLT:] Iqela lamabhinqa eMelika' (eMelika)[F1], apho iNkusoloko kubekwa izikroko, kunokuthi kusetyenziswe ukuvavanywa kweNkuveza imbali, [R2] [2] [e-FGeneadentine] imbono ende yezomthetho wobucala [embali yobucala] [embali yomthetho] [iNthe yobulungisa] [ethetho]] [ininzi] i-Genethilonke] i-Docreast : "Isigqibo esithe

Ukuqala Nokuzibandakanya Neenkomfa

Enye ingxingo ebangelwa yintsingiselo yantlandlolo yaqalwa kwibutho elalicinezelwe kakhulu yimilinganiselo yale mihla. UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wakhusela ubukhoboka, wawakhanyela amabhinqa, wawaphatha amavoti amancinane angokoqobo njengabantu abapheleleyo. Umahluleli wantlandlolo oyisebenzisa ngokuthembeka loo ntsingiselo kusenokufuneka ukuxhasa iziphumo zokuba umqwalaseli ongathathi nxaxhebangachananga ajongene nokungalungi. Umzekelo, ukuba ityala eliphathelele ubuhlanga be-Gawulani be-Inth Amentellimeter, abanye abaqalayo baye baphikisa ukuba abafaki mithetho ephezulu bengazimiselanga xabiso lokulingana. Eneneni, kwaneekhohlolo-Gegosamvo olucek-ekileyo olucekelweyo kwiSithilini saseColunt. Ugwebini ozinikele kwi-okratiodt deaity (uR.) uG.

Le ngxaki ikhokelele abanye abakholelwa kwimvelaphi yangaphambili ukuba bamkele oko kubizwa ngokuba “bugronalism obuphila ngokomGaqo-siseko” okanye“ isisombululo esifileyo” apho baphikisayo ukuba imigaqo ebanzi yomGaqo-siseko `njengokulingana/ukulingana--"ifanele isetyenziswe kwiimeko zangoku. Kodwa oku kususa intsingiselo yantlandlolo ngenxa yokusesikweni, kuthomalalisa intetho yokuba ubukho bokuqala buyindlela engaqhelekanga yobundilele.

Iingcebiso neMiqathango eQumrhu

Abahlalutyi abaphilayo, ingakumbi abo baxhasa umGaqo-siseko kunye nabaLawuli abaphilayo, baphikisa ngelithi ubuGaqo-siseko abukwazi ukuvakalisa isithembiso sabo sobundilele. Babonisa ukuba abagwebi ngokungenakugwetyelwa basebenzisa ubulumko ekukhetheni imithombo yembali yokutyala, indlela yokumisela isithethe esinxulumeneyo, kunye nomgangatho oqhelekileyo wokufumana. Unjingalwazi uJack Balkin waseYale Law School, ngokomzekelo, uphikisa ngelithi ubukho bendalo buvisisana neziphumo eziqhubekayo ukuba ubani uthatha “imfundiso yoqobo yesiseko.” equka imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko. Kodwa olu hlobo lobuBhulumente lukhangeleka ngokwahlukileyo kwinguqulelo engqongqo ekhuthazwa nguScalia.

Enye ingqwalaselo ivela kumntu ochaphazeleka ngokusemthethweni ophikisa ukuba ukungathathi cala yintsomi. Bathi yonke intsingiselo ibandakanya ukhetho olubalulekileyo kwaye ufundo lwentlalo lufihla nje ukhetho olufihlakeleyo ngokufihlakeleyo. Ngokutsho kwale mbono, uqobo alungondilelenga kunezinye iindlela, kuyindlela nje eyahlukileyo yokufumana iziphumo ezisoloko zixhasa izikhundla zezopolitiko eziqhelekileyo. Uphando lwe-Empiracism lubonise ukuba abagwebi bokuqala batyele ngokukhetha ngokuchanekileyo, nangona i-athority ayifezekanga. [[FLT:]] A ufundo oluvela kuMthetho we-Duke Journal luhlola imilinganiselo yokuvota yakuqala.

Ukusabela Kwabantu Abafunda Imvelaphi

Abahlalutyi boqobo baphendula ngokuthi olu hlalutyo ludibanisa indlela neziphumo zayo. Baphikisa ngelithi uqobo alukho malunga neziphumo; luxhomekeke kwinkqubo. Ukuba intsingiselo yantlandlolo ikhokelela kwisiphumo sokuba ijaji ingathandi, ijaji imele iqhubeke ilandela. Isibakala sokuba abahlalutyi boqobo maxa wambi bangqina ukuba uphando lwembali lunzima, hayi ukuba indlela iphosakele. Ngaphezu koko, baphikisa ukuba ukuphila ngomgaqo-siseko kulula kakhulu ukuba igqwetha ngenxa yokuba ayinayo nayiphi na i-ankile eqinileyo. Kwimbono yantlandlolo, enye indlela yokufuna uphando lwakudala ayiyo ayiyo into yobundilele kodwa iyadima.

Ukuziphakamisa: Unqulo Lobuntama Nobundilele Kwinkundla Yanamhlanje

Inkundla ePhakamileyo ngoku yeyona iphambili kwisizukulwana. AmaJaji uThomas, Atalito, Gormoth, Kavanaugh, noBarrett bonke baxhasa ukuqiqa kwasekuqaleni kumaqondo ahlukeneyo. Kodwa izigqibo zeNkundla maxa wambi zityhila ukwaphuka kwenkampu yokuqala. [[FLT: 0] Bruen[FLT] , uninzi lwasebenzisa uvavanyo olungqongqo lwembali, kodwa uJasti Kavaugh wacebisa indlela ethambileyo enokuthi ivumele ezinye iimbono ezisekelwe kwisithethe. IJastier Barrett, ngexesha lokuvuma kwakhe, ibonise ukuba usavelisa iimbono zakhe kwimodeli yokuqala, kwaye ukuqhelisa kwakhe ngamanye amaxesha imodeli engqongqo.

Ezi zahlulo zibalaselisa umlo oqhubekayo wokudibanisa ubukho bokuqala kunye nentsingiselo yobundilele. Ukuba ubukho bantlandlolo bunokuchaza ukungavisisani, ngoko ke izivumelwano zobuqu zeqhinga zichaphazela iziphumo. Ijaji efunda imbali ngobubanzi inokuba neziphumo ezahlukeneyo kunezoyifunda ngokucuthayo. Idinga lokungathathi cala liyaphela njengoko inkqubo iphikisana.

Ikamva Lempikiswano

Abaphengululi bomthetho bayaqhubeka belungisa ingcamango yoqobo. Abanye, njengonjingalwazi Randy Barnett, baxhasa “intsingiselo yantlandlolo yobukho ” egxininisa intsingiselo yombhalo kuneenjongo zabaqulunqi. Abanye, njengoNjingalwazi William Baude, baye bazama ukubonisa ukuba ubuBhongi bukuphela kwendlela esemthethweni phantsi komGaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Ezi ziphumo zengcamango zingalucacisa ulwalamano nobundilele, kodwa azinakuyicombulula ngokupheleleyo. Logama abagwebi bemele bakhethe phakathi kwembali ephikisanayo, uxanduva phakathi kobuBhosaltarian nobundi bobugranti bomthetho luzaqhubekeka.

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi kobukho bamazwe kunye nobundilele bobulungisa luntsonkothileyo kwaye luneenkqubo ezininzi. UbuDaqo-magama bufuna ukuba ibe yeyona ndlela yobundilele yokutolika umGaqo-siseko ngokumisa izigqibo ngentsingiselo emiselweyo yembali. Kwiinkalo ezininzi iphumele: inyanzela ingqiqo yokulawula idemokhrasi, ihlonela amalungelo edemokhrasi, kwaye inika isiseko esingaguqukiyo. Kodwa intsingiselo yokungathathi cala yale nxaxheba ifuna ngaphezu nje kwendlela yokuba i-$("iphonown) efuna ukuba ijajini likwazi ukusebenzisa loo ndlela ngaphandle kwekhethelo, ukuchasana nemilinganiselo yobuqu. Imbali i-fice i-mscreance yamalungelo azimeleyo, kunye neziphumo zokungabi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi na ezinye iimeko zomthetho obalulekileyo phakathi kweMelikanst jovinti.