Ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente bakarhulumente kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente luyisiseko solawulo lwamaMelika, olusekelwe kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. yaye lubunjwe ziinkulungwane zezizathu eziyimfuneko. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko ubeka amagunya abanzi kurhulumente wesizwe kwaye ugcine aseleyo kumazwe, inyaniso intsonkothile. Asebenza njengezinto ezilawulayo ezilawulayo ngemigaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko, imigaqo-siseko, kunye neenkundla zenkundla, ukanti kufuneka zihlale kunye nemisebenzi enamandla yesizwe egunyazinzileyo enyanzelelwayo ngokunyanzela imithetho nemilinganiselo yesizwe. Oku kubangela ukulungelenanzano oluluqikeleyo phakathi kwe-Iscalo kunye nentlukwano, intsebenziswano kunye neengxabano. Ukuqonda oko kuyimfuneko kumntu oqhuba inkqubo yolawulo lukarhulumente, ulawulo, okanye ulawulo lorhulumente lwaseUnited States. Eli nqaku lihlola iinkonzo zorhulumente, iimodelelo, ii-adem

ISiseko soMgaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika iplani yemithetho yolawulo lwezwe. U-Claus [Umthetho we-ATCLE VI, Claus 2) umisela ukuba umthetho karhulumente ngumthetho omkhulu welizwe, ithetha ukuba imithetho ayisayi kungqubana nemithetho karhulumente okanye umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Noko ke, [[FLT]]TY] IsiHendeleli seSiphetho [[[ sigcine onke amagunya angagunya angagunyaziswangawangameliyo kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente okanye kubantu. Lo mGaqo-siseko unyusa inkqubo apho omabini urhulumente elalanisa kwaye ekhuphisanayo.

Amasebe alawulayo afumana igunya lawo kwizenzo zeBhunga kunye nemiyalelo yegunya. Asebenza phantsi kwesebe eliphetheyo kwaye anembopheleleko yokusebenzisa, ukunyanzelisa, nokulawula iinkqubo zesizwe. Kwelinye icala, oorhulumente belizwe bafumana igunya kwimimiselo karhulumente kwaye banamandla amakhulu amapolisa okukhusela impilo, ukhuseleko, intlalo-ntle, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yabemi babo. Olu lwahlulo alusoloko lucocekile; imimandla emininzi yemigaqo-nkqubo isebenza njengekhuselwa kobume bemeko-yobume, ukunyamekela impilo-ntle, kunye nezothutho-------------

Indima Neembopheleleko

Oorhulumente

Ngalinye lamazwe angama-50 lisebenza njengelebhu yedemokhrasi ezimeleyo. Oorhulumente bakarhulumente banezabo izigqeba ezilawulayo, ezowiso-mthetho, nezezomthetho. Iimbopheleleko zabo ziphakamile kwaye zichaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi bemihla ngemihla:

  • Imfundo: Amazwe alawula izikolo zikawonke-wonke zeK-12, amisela imigangatho yokufundisa, kwaye ajonge iiyunivesithi zikawonke-wonke kunye neekholeji zoluntu. Urhulumente worhulumente unika inkxaso-mali eyongezelelweyo kodwa akaqhubeli zikolo.
  • Itransportation: Ama-odola azimele kwaye agcine uninzi lwendlela, iibhulorho, kunye nohola wendlela. Zikwalawula urhwebo lwamazwe kunye neenkqubo zothutho lukawonke-wonke.
  • Imali ephambili: Amazwe anika iinkqubo zeMedicaid phantsi kolwalathiso lukarhulumente, alawula iimarike ze-inshorensi yempilo, kunye neengcali zonyango lwelayisensi.
  • Ukhuseleko lwePublic: amapolisa aseburhulumenteni, ukunyanzeliswa komthetho wasekuhlaleni, kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente zisingatha amatyala amaninzi olwaphulo-mthetho.
  • Ukwamkelwa koshishino: Ama-United States amisela imithetho yequmrhu, imfuno zobuchule, kunye nokhuseleko lwabathengi abaninzi.
  • Usetyenziso lwelizwe kunye nezibonelelo zendalo: Amazwe alawula umhlaba asebenzisa ucwangciso, amalungelo amanzi, kunye nemimiselo emininzi yemeko- bume kwimida yawo.

Ingxakeko yomanyano

Amasebe omanyano alungelelaniswe phantsi kwesebe elilawulayo yaye anembopheleleko kwimicimbi echaphazela ilizwe liphela. Igunya lawo liquka ubuncwane besizwe.

  • Environal Protection Agency (EPA) – ilawula umoya nomgangatho wamanzi, inkunkuma enebungozi, kunye nokhuseleko lwemichiza kwilizwe lonke. Ifunda okungakumbi malunga ne-EPA.
  • Izibangeli zoLawulo lwezifo nothintelo (CDC) – zimisela imigaqo yempilo kawonke-wonke, ukusukela izifo eziqhambukayo, kunye neenkqubo zemali zezonyango. Ukutyelela iCDC.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isebe lezothutho [DOT] – livelela umendo wendlela ephakathi kwelizwe, inqwelo-moya, iziporo, kunye nokhuseleko lwaselwandle
  • Isebe lokhuseleko lwasekhaya (DHS) – lilawula ukufuduka, ukhuseleko lomda, kunye nokusabela kwintlekele nge-FEMA.
  • [[UMTHETHO:0] Isebe lemfundo – isasaza inkxaso-mali yezwe yorhulumente yezikolo kwaye inyanzelisa amalungelo asekuhlaleni kwimfundo kodwa ayicwangcisi zifundo zesikolo.
  • Food kunye neDrug Administration (FDA)[FDA:1] – ilawula ukhuseleko lokutya, amayeza, kunye nezixhobo zezamayeza.

Amasebe omanyano asoloko esebenza kwiiofisi zengingqi kunye namaqabane karhulumente. Umzekelo, amatyala angazalisekisa iinkqubo zeEPA ezamkelekileyo zemekobume okanye anyanzelise imigangatho yemisebenzi yesebe phantsi kweSebe leBandla.

Imizekelo yeeNdlela zoXoqo-nkqubo

Abaphengululi bachaza imizekelo emininzi echaza olu lwalamano:

Umanyano lweMida

Ngokufuthi xa kuthelekiswa nekeyiki yomaleko, iiposi zolawulo olubini lorhulumente norhulumente worhulumente osebenza kwiibhombu ezingafaniyo nezinokuzalana okuncinane. Lo mzekelo wawulawula ngenkulungwane ye-19, xa urhulumente wesizwe wayegxininisa ngokuyintloko kwimicimbi yesizwe, yezorhwebo, neyorhwebo lwamazwe asemzini, ngoxa amaphondo aye asingatha imicimbi yasekhaya. Iinkqubo zeNew Deal kunye nezorhulumente ezilandelayo zazenza ukuba ezi migca zingasebenzi kakuhle, kodwa le ngcamango isenempembelelo kwiingxoxo eziphathelele amalungelo karhulumente.

Umanyano lwamaPhondo

Ukususela ngo-1930, uburhulumente bomanyano bavela njengemodeli edityanisiweyo, esoloko ichazwa njengekeyiki yebhastile. Kule ndlela, omabini amanqanaba karhulumente asebenzisanayo kwiinjongo ezabelweneyo. Umanyano lwezibonelelo zemali, iinkqubo zenkxaso-lunye, kunye nonxulumano lolawulo luziimpawu. Umzekelo, uMthetho we-Eavil Air uvumela amasiko azenzele amaqhinga awo okusebenza lodwa lomgaqo-mthetho, xa kufikelelwa kumgangatho omncinci worhulumente.

Ubuzwe beFederalism

I-Fiscal urhulumente uchaza ulwalamano lwemali phakathi kwamarhulumente norhulumente wesizwe. Urhulumente wesizwe uqokelela uninzi lwengeniso yerhafu kunye nemali esasazwayo kwimali-mali ngenkxaso yemali, uncedo olusisigxina, kunye nezibonelelo zezithintelo. Iimeko ezidibene nenkxaso-mali yemali yesizwe zingaphembelela inkqubo karhulumente ephambili. Umzekelo, urhulumente wesizwe ufuna ukuba urhulumente anyuse ukusela okusemthethweni kwiminyaka engama-21 okanye aphulukane nemali yohola-ndlela. Le mali isisixhobo esinamandla somgaqo-mthetho wesizwe, kodwa ikwadala uxinzelelo xa amazwe evakalelwa kukuba anyanzelekile.

I-Federalism eNtsha

Ukususela ngo-1980, oomongameli abaliqela baye baxhasa ubuzwe obutsha , benenjongo yokususa amandla akhutshwayo kumazwe. Izihlomelo ezifana notshintsho lwentlalo-ntle (uMthetho wonyaka ka-1996 wobuProfethi noMsebenzi) zanika amajelo anika ulungelelwaniso olungakumbi ekuyileni iinkqubo zoncedo. Le modeli igxininisa uvavanyo lorhulumente kwaye incitshise ulawulo lukarhulumente, nangona luhlala lusetyenziswa ngokungafanelekanga ngaphaya kwemimandla yemithetho.

Indawo Ezingundoqo Zentsebenziso

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Imfundo ingumsebenzi oyintloko karhulumente nowengingqi, kodwa urhulumente wengingqi udlala indima ebalulekileyo ngokuxhasa nokuphendula iimfuno. Umfundi ngamnye uphumelele (ESSA) (20) (20) endaweni yoMntwana Oshiywe Ngasemva kwaye wasusa igunya elibalulekileyo lokuba alawule ngoxa egcina ulawulo lukarhulumente ngenxa yokungalingani kunye nemigangatho. Ngoku azenzela iinkqubo zokuziphendulela, iimvavanyo ezisemgangathweni, kunye nezicwangciso zokuphucula isikolo, ngokomfanelelo womthetho. Isihloko Imali yesikolo semfundo ephantsi kwezifundo ezifunyenweyo kunye noMsebenzi osisibonelelo (IDA) inika izibonelelo ezingundoqo ezisetyenziswa ngurhulumente onegunya lokuqhuba imicimbi.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Inkqubo yokusingqongileyo ibonakalisa intsebenziswano kunye nongquzulwano. Ngoncedo lwe-EPA, urhulumente wengingqi umisela imilinganiselo yesizwe yomgangatho womoya namanzi. Noko ke, amaphondo asoloko enikwa igunya lokunyanzela le milinganiselo phantsi kokwenziwa kweeplani ezivunyiweyo zikarhulumente (SIPS). EKhalifoniya ikwindawo ekhethekileyo: ingacela abaxhasi abasuka kwi-EPA ukuba bamisele imilinganiselo engqongqo yokukhupha izithuthi phantsi koMthetho we-Ceac Air Act. Amanye amazwe amaninzi aye akhetha ukulandela ukhokelo lweKhalifoniyania, adala umsebenzi onzima wemimiselo. Le nkqubo idityaniweyo ikhokelele kwiimfazwe ezingokwasemthethweni, ngokukodwa kwigunya le-EPA ekwayindawo ehambayo okanye ilawula iigesi ezingqukuva.

Impilo

UMthetho we-Affordicules Care (ACA) ka-2010 owandisiweyo wolawulo lwezonyango loluntu ngeli xesha ulonke ulawulo lwezonyango. Amazwe anika uMdicaid inkxaso yemali engqinelanayo nomthetho we-ACA akhuthaza amazwe ukwandisa uMdicaid e-odifice. Ngonyaka wama-2024, ama-40 amazwe kunye neSithiligi saseColumbia aye andisa uMicaid, ngoxa amazwe alishumi engakhange achaze, ancome iindleko kunye norhulumente. Urhulumente wesizwe uqhuba i-Healcurence Mentarsing Mestamment, kodwa unegunya lokusebenzisa ukutshintshisana kwawo. Ngokufanayo, i-FUPRG, ilawula ukukhusela kweziyobisi, kodwa iregistratensis nezibhethi-19. I-CHOVD ibalase oku kwemiciso, njengoko kuchaza ukusetyenziswa kwemicimbiso ye-CDC, kunye nemigaqo yokuzigqeqesho.

Izithuthi Nezakhiwo

Urhulumente wamazwe unika inkxaso-mali ebalulekileyo kwiindlela zaseburhulumenteni, kwibhulorho, nakwimisebenzi yothutho ngakwi Isebe Lezothutho kunye ne[FLT] Faceral Highway Administration [. Amazwe anika le ndlela kwaye agcine ezi ndlela, ngokufuthi nemali karhulumente egqume izahlulo zemali. Urhulumente umisela nemigangatho yokuzikhusela (umz.g., imilinganiselo yelori, imigangatho yezoqoqosho zamandla) ngexa kumiselwe imithetho yendlela yoohamba-trafiki kunye nokulawula ukugcinwa kwemiqathango yoomqhubi. [[FLT] kunye nomthetho womsebenzi [FLT]

Ulawulo lwexesha lengozi

Ukuphendula kwentlekele ngumzekelo oqhelekileyo wentsebenziswano yezoburhulumente. Robert T. Stafford Infection and Emergency Immargement Act inika amandla iFederal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) ukudibanisa uncedo lwamazwe xa irhuluneli yephondo ivakalisa intlekele. Amazwe agcina eyawo amaqumrhu okulawula ungxamiseko (umz. Cal OES eKhalifoniya) aphatha nokucela uncedo lokuqala xa oovimba besongelo besoyisakele. I-CHOVID-19 kunye nenkqhwitha efana noKatrinat noMaria zityhile zombi zombi zombili iimpawu nobuthathaka kulo manyano.

Iingxaki Kulwalamano

Phezu kwazo nje iindlela zokusebenzisana, ulwalamano lwengingqi norhulumente lujamelene nocelomngeni oluzingisileyo olunokukhokelela ekungaphumelelini, ekungangeni ngokomthetho, nasekudidekeni kwabantu.

Ukuwiswa Kwemithetho Nokuxambulisana

Xa imithetho karhulumente neyamarhulumente ingafani, ukuthobela imithetho yezorhwebo nabemi kuba ngumthwalo onzima. Umzekelo, intsangu ihlala ingekho mthethweni phantsi komthetho karhulumente, kodwa amaphondo angaphezu kwama-20 ayasetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni. Oku kwenza ukuba iibhanki, abaqeshi, kunye nokugcinwa komthetho kungenelele imigaqo-nkqubo yemo yemo yezobuzwe ibangele iindleko zemali kwimibutho yezorhulumente emininzi.

Iintlawulo neMitya ePhawulayo

Izibonelelo ezingundoqo zisoloko zifika neemeko ezifuneka ukuba zivunywe. Oku kunganyanzelisa ukuba kusetyenziswe ubuncwane bazo kwizinto eziphambili zikarhulumente, maxa wambi ngendleko yeemfuno zasekuhlaleni. UMthetho woTshintsho olunganyuswanga u-Mandadates [ [1995]) uzama ukulinganisela loo miyalelo, kodwa iyaqhubekeka. Kwelinye icala, ichaza ukuba ayayala inkxaso yorhulumente (umz., ulwando lweMedicaid) lunga khulula oovimba abanokunceda abemi babo.

Ukukhululeka Nocelomngeni Olusemthethweni

Urhulumente wesizwe angakhulula umthetho karhulumente kwimimandla apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yalawula khona. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawisa umthetho kumatyala amaninzi ivavanye imida yamandla karhulumente, ukusuka ekunyanzelweni kwemiqathango yokufuduka (Arizona v. United States) ukuya kumgangatho wempilo (NFIB v. Sebelius). La matyala adla ngokuxhomekeka kwi- Commerce Clause kunye nohlaziyo lweshumi loMphetho. Umlinganiselo wamandla utshintshisombululo nganye kunye nolawulo lweNkundla Ephakamileyo, ubangela ukungaqiniseki.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezobupolitika

Njengoko ezopolitiko zesizwe zikhula zize zihlukane, uxanduva lwezikhundla zelizwe luye lwanda. Amazwana achasene neemeko zezobupolitika angayixhathisa ngokukhutheleyo imigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente, njengokuba ibonwa "ngezixeko ezihlala abantu" kwizixeko zokufuduka okanye kumazwe acel ’ umngeni imithetho yemekobume. Oku kunokukhokelela ekuthinteleni okusemthethweni okunciphisa ukuphunyezwa kwenkqubo nokuphelisa ukuthemba kukawonke-wonke.

Imisantsa yoNxibelelwano noQoqoshelwano

Izikhulu ze-biureaucracy zidla ngokukhathazwa lunxibelelwano olungelulo. Amasebe asebenza ngomanyano asenokukhupha imithetho ngaphandle kokunxibelelana ngokwaneleyo nezixhobisi zezixhobo zikarhulumente, nto leyo ekhokelela kwimigca engekho ngqiqweni okanye kwiziphumo zexesha ezingalindelekilenga zasekuhlaleni. Ngokuchasene noko, amatyala angasilela ukuchaza ugcino-lwazi ngokunempumelelo, athintele ulawulo lwamagunya. Indyikitya yokufa ye-COVID ebekwe yaveza ezi zithuba xa amazwe akhuphisana ngokukhawulezileyo nokuzisela ukhokelo lukarhulumente.

Uvavanyo Lomzekelo

Isifundo Setyala 1: Impendulo ye-COVID-19

Isifo esigqugqisileyo esivavanywe ngobundlobongela boorhulumente njengesonakaliso semeko ukususela kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II. Urhulumente worhulumente, ngeCDC kunye kunye [ii-'dipoint'] yooncedo lwempilo kunye nolwabeko loluntu], wakhupha imigaqo yokuvavanya, nokugonya. Amagunya aphezulu, ayenegunya eliphambili kwimilinganiselo yempilo kawonke-wonke: akhupha iimfuno zemaski, agunyaze anikwe izigqubuthelo ezikolweni, anikwe unikezelo lwezikolo, kwaye aphathwa. Amanye amazwe alandela ukhokelo olusondeleyo; amanye ayalwala. Imigaqo-mthetho yadala ukudideka kodwa yavunyelwa ukuba ilungele ukutshintshana kwemeko yasekuhlaleni. Urhulumente wanika iibhili-waka eli mvume wokuziweyo kuncedo ngoncedo kunye nolwando oluqhelekileyo lwemali.[FFT] [FFFFF] [5] [FFFFD], kodwa ingxluev], indlela yokusetyenziswa kwemeko yokufunda kunye nemeko

Isifundo semeko-ntle 2: Ukubuyiselwa kokusingqongileyo kweCalifornia

IKhalifoniya ibisoloko iyinkokeli kulawulo lwemekobume, ingakumbi malunga nokukhutshwa kwezithuthi. Phantsi koMthetho we-Cease Air, i-EPA inganika umenzi wezomthetho ongqongqo ukuba amisele imigangatho engqongqo kune-baseline karhulumente. Amanye amaphondo angakhetha ukwamkela imigangatho yeKhalifoniya. Ngexesha lolawulo lweTrump, iEPA irhoxise umxhasi weKhalifoniya ukucel-ukuceka igunya layo lokumisela imithetho yezoqoqosho, ikhokelela ekumangalelweni kwetyala. Ulawulo lweBiden lungabuyisela i-ravier, ivumela iKhalifoniya ukuba iqhubeke nolawulo lwayo. Eli tyala ligxininisa kumandla asemthethweni nezobupolitika zemeko-mongomhlaba karhulumente, kunye nendima yamazwe asebenza njengenkqubo yezoshishino-omeli-osiglo.

Ikamva likaRhulumente noManyano

Ukukhangela phambili, iinkalo eziliqela ziya kubumba indlela oorhulumente besizwe kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente asebenzisana ngayo. Ezi zindululo ziya kufuna ulawulo olulungeleleneyo nokuvuma ukuphinda umisele amabinzana olawulo.

Ukwanda kwe-oyileyo ye-odoli kumgaqo-nkqubo wamanani nowasebuxhakaxhaka

Amazwe aya ehla kwimimandla urhulumente wesizwe angazange ayibhekise ngokupheleleyo, njenge-data (California’s CCPA), umgaqo wengqiqo owenziweyo, kunye nobundilele bobuxhakaxhaka be-ints. Njengoko ubugcisa budlula umthetho wesizwe, buthe baba ngabalawuli abachaphazelekayo benyaniso. Oku kunokukhokelela kwibala elinomthetho ohlukeneyo, kodwa kwakhona kwincoko yesizwe evelisa imigangatho karhulumente.

Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Nokutshintsha Kwamandla

Xa urhulumente wengingqi ezimisele ukufikelela kwiinjongo zemozulu ezifuna amabhongo, iimeko ziya kubaluleka ekuphumezeni unciphiso lophumo, imisebenzi yamandla evuselelwayo, kunye nezibonelelo ezisemgangathweni. [[FLT: 0] Lumbini New Dec ulwandiso lwezimbo kumgangatho wezwe (umz. California, New York, Washington) lungasebenza njengemizekelo okanye lubangele ukhuhleko ukuba imigaqo karhulumente iqwalaselwe njengeyokuqala kakhulu ukubhalwa. Imikhosi enika ingqwalaselo, enjengemikhosi yenkonzo karhulumente, ingaphuma i-ekhomba evumela nokuxhasa.

Unyango notshintsho kunye noqeqesho lwempilo

Le ngxaki ibhenca imfuneko yenkqubo yoluntu enamandla yonyango kuwo onke amanqanaba. Utyalo-mali lweSebe kwisebe lonyango lorhulumente kunye nogcino-lwazi lwangoku lubonakala. Noko ke, iingxoxo ngekamva le-ACA, ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi zomthetho, kunye neemfuno zomsebenzi weMedicaid ziza kuqhubeka zivavanya umanyano. Amazwe aza kuqhubela phambili ukunyanzeleka ukuguquka okungakumbi, lo gama urhulumente uya kubeka izibophelelo zemali.

Unyanzeliso lofuduko

Ukufuduka kuseyindawo ebanzi. Igunya loManyano lokufuduka licacile, kodwa amaphondo aye azama ukubumba ukunyanzelisa uqikelelo ngemithetho enjenge-SB 1070 yase-Arizona okanye “ngemigaqo e-"enkqubo. INkundla Ephakamileyo iyaqhubeka ikhupha imida, kunye nezinto eziphambili zokugcinwa kwesebe eliphetheyo ezichaphazela uqingqo-mali kunye nonxulumano lomthetho.

Ukucaciswa kweNkundla Ephakamileyo

Inkundla yangoku ePhakamileyo, kunye noninzi lwayo olungalinganiyo, ibonise ukukulungela ukumisela ulawulo lwamandla karhulumente kwezinye iindawo (umz., West Virginia v. EPA) kwaye ixhasa ulawulo lorhulumente kwezinye. Imithetho yexesha elizayo kwimfundiso yezentengiselwano engundoqo yemfundiso yezemfundo [[FLT]]] kunye norhulumente wezolawulo zinokunciphisa ngokuphawulekayo ukufikelela koomeli besizwe, banika ithuba elingaphezulu lokusebenza. Ngokuphikisana noko, ukumisela ukwandisa amandla orhulumente kwiindawo ezifana norhwebo okanye amalungelo asekuhlaleni okulawula.

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente besizwe namaqumrhu karhulumente alumi ndawonye; yinkqubo ephilayo, yokuphefumla ehambelana neenguqu zezobupolitika, zentlalo, kunye nobugcisa. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko ulungiselela isiseko, inyani yosuku ukuya kwimeko-nyani ibandakanya intsebenziswano eqhubekayo, intsebenziswano, kunye nexeshana lemfazwe. Amazwe asebenza njengeejelo-lebhusayithi zokuqinisekisa imigaqo yezomthetho, ngelinye ixesha amasebe aqinisekisa imigangatho yesizwe kwaye anike ubuncwane obusebenzayo. Okona kulawulo olusebenzayo luphuma xa omabini amanqanaba omgangatho ohlukeneyo ehlonela amandla awo kwaye egcina imijelo evulekileyo yonxibelelwano. Ukuqonda oku kungundoqo kokubandakanye nokusebenzisana kwemithetho elungeleneyo ngaphandle kokuzichaza nokusebenzisana kwawo.