Ukudlala phakathi kwamagunya orhulumente norhulumente kwenza ithambeka lolawulo lwamaMelika, ukanti liseyenye yezona zinto ziphambili eziphikiswayo nezidityanisiweyo kwinkqubo yezobupolitika yase-U.Abafundisi-lwazi, abafundi, kunye nabemi, ukuqonda le mpembelelo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ekwenziwa ngayo imithetho, ukunyanzeliswa, nokucetyiswa. Ngoxa uMgaqo-siseko unika iplani, into eninzi ngakumbi, nemithetho ekhoyo esoloko ikhokelela kwiimfazwe ezingokwasemthethweni, inkqubo esungulwayo, kunye nesiphithiphithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-nkqubo. Eli nqaku libonisa imimandla ebalulekileyo yokudibana, ukuvavanyaza kwenkundla ephakamileyo, kunye nokubala iziphumo zemfundo yobomi bemihla ngemihla.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko somanyano

UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. awuyileli inkqubo elula; kunoko, umisa inkqubo yorhulumente eyahlula ulawulo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente. Le candelo libalulekile ekulondolozeni ukuzilawula kukarhulumente ngeli xesha begcina ubudlelane. Abaququzeleli, baphenjelelwa ziingcali ezifana neMontesquieu nokuzotywa kokusilela kwamanqaku eSizwe, bafuna ukwenza inkqubo eyakuthi ithintele ulawulo lobuzwilakhe ngamandla achitha amandla.

Amandla Amiselweyo, Agciniweyo Nawangoku

Amagunya athunyelweyo (okanye adweliswe) ngalawo anikwe ngokukhethekileyo urhulumente wesizwe ngeGatya I, iCandelo lesi-8 loMgaqo-siseko. Ezi ziquka amandla okulawula urhwebo lwezomthetho, ukubhengeza imfazwe, ukuphakamisa imikhosi, ukusungula iiposi, kunye nemali yengqesho. Amagunya agciniweyo, akhuselwe yiSindululo seshumi elinesithoba, ngalawo anganikwanga urhulumente okanye angavunyelwanga kumazwe. Ezi ziquka ukukhokela urhwebo lwamazwe, ukuqhuba unyulo, ukumisela oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, nokulawula impilo kawonke, ukhuseleko, kunye nemfundo. Amandla akhoyo asabelanawo omabini amanqanaba orhulumente, njengamandla erhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukumisela iinkundla, nokunyanzela imithetho.

Umahluko phakathi koludwe namagunya agcinelweyo usisiseko, kodwa ukutolikwa kwezi ntlobo kunyusiwe kwaye kwafunyanwa ngokuhamba kwexesha. I-dictal kunye ne-Fanity Claus (Icandelo I, Icandelo 8, u-Claus 18) inika iBhunga igunya lokwenza yonke imithetho "eyimfuneko nefanelekileyo" yokuphumeza amandla ayo, asetyenziselwa ukwandisa igunya lesizwe ngokuphawulekayo.

UNondyebo Nokukhululwa

Xa imithetho karhulumente neyarhulumente ingqubana, iSupremacy Claus (Artle VI, Clausle 2) iqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko, imithetho karhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano yi-"uMthetho wezwe". Oku kuthetha ukuba abagwebi kuzo zonke iindawo babotshelelwe ngumthetho karhulumente, kwaye umgaqo-siseko okanye imithetho karhulumente ephikisana nomthetho karhulumente ayisebenzi. Noko ke, ukusebenzisa iSuprematy Claus asoloko icacile. Iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe enoba umthetho wombuso uyangqubana nomthetho karhulumente okanye uwelela kummandla omiselwe ukuba uvule kumthetho wesizwe.

Iintlobo Zokhukuliso

Ucimo lunokwenzeka ngeendlela ezininzi:

  • Ukucinezelwa: Xa umthetho wezwe uchaza ngokucacileyo ukuba udlula umthetho karhulumente kwindawo ethile. Umzekelo, uMthetho woKhuselo lomoya uquka ilungiselelo elicacileyo lokukhulula.
  • Isetyenziswa ukukhululwa: Xa umthetho wengingqi ubanzi kangangokuba awuniki thuba lakulawula ("Ibala lokukhulula"), okanye xa umthetho karhulumente ungqubana ngqo nomthetho wezwe ("ukukhulula).

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yavelisa ingqokelela eqinileyo elandela intelekelelo, isoloko ivavanya injongo yeNkqutyana ngokuchasene namandla asekuhlaleni amapolisa.

Iindawo Ezingundoqo Zokuqengqeleka Nengxabano

Amandla okuqhwaba abonakala ngokucacileyo kwiinkundla zolawulo apho oorhulumente belizwe nezorhulumente besithi banegunya.

Ukwenziwa kwemithetho yeMali

Mhlawumbi eyona ndawo idibene kakhulu yemfazwe ephakathi ibandakanya umya. I-Guided Substances Act yeGunyange I yeSicwangciso sokukhupha iziyobisi, ukuvelisa, ukusakaza, nokuphatha imimandla engekho mthethweni phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Kodwa, ukususela ngowe- 1996, inani elandayo lamazwe liye lagunyazisa umyasa ngomjukujelwa okanye ukuzonwabisa. Oku kubangela ingxabano engqalileyo: abantu namashishini asebenza phantsi komthetho karhulumente ahlala esengozini yokutshutshiswa. Noko ke, nge-Rocbaker·Blakemorementment yaye kamva iCole Meyandrandment (uthorivrand), iSebe leMicimbi liba lilungele ukusetyenziswa kwezonwano), iziphumo zokulwa kwemithetho esemthethweni, kodwa iziphumo zikho umsebenzi wokulawula okujikelezayo ngeendawo, ukuphakamisa ulawulo lwezwelozwe, ukulawulwa kwe-omiqatha, kunye nemidabibini yephondo, i-20 yephondo, kunye ne-Grividi ye-opletiod, i-ods, i-odmigg

Utshintsho Nesenzo Sokunyamekela Impilo

UMthetho woKhuselo loMngaphili noMphathiswa (ACA) ka-2010 ubonakalisa amagunya angenayo kwizonyango. Urhulumente wengingqi wamisela isiseko semfuno ye-inshorensi nganye (eyenziwe ngokutsha), kunye nokwandisa uMdicaid. Noko ke, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi i-Motionalidean Federation of Independent Business v. Seberius [20] [20] (202] urhulumente wesizwe akanokwandiswa kukungagunyazi ukuba uMedicaid andise ngokusongela ukuba anikezele zonke iiMedics ezikhoyo. Oku kwaphumela ekukhetheni kwesizwe nge-inte yombuso: njengokhetho lwama-2024, ngokwee-40 ze-Mica, ngoxa ezishiyenezo ezi zinto zingakuhlali.

Unyanzeliso lofuduko

Inkqubo yoku-odola ingumthetho wolawulo oluqinileyo, kodwa amaphondo aye azama ukubeka igunya ngemithetho enjenge-Arizona’s S.B. 1070 (2070), eyafuna ukuba umthetho karhulumente uqinisekise ukuba abantu bafuduka ngexesha lokumisa. Arizora v. United States (202), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagawula uninzi lomthetho njengothulwe ngumthetho wengiselwa ngurhulumente wobuhlaziyo, kodwa yaxhasa u "ondibonise amaphepha akho" ilungiselelo, umbandela oqhubekayo. Ngokuphikisanayo, "isixeko esinentsebenzi esingumthetho" imisela intsebenzi yoluntu kunye namagunya asekuhlaleni okufuduka. Oku kulwanovel-wakubonakalisa ukungavisisani okunzulu kwendima efanelekileyo kurhulumente okanye ukuchasa kwe-omatilo-orhulumente. I-orhulumente basebenzisa kwaye baphindisa iimeko zezomthetho zezomthetho ezisemthethweni

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Umthetho wokusingqongileyo ngomnye ummandla oxhaphakileyo noxinzelelo lwesizwe. Umthetho we-Chrooc Air kunye noMgaqo-siseko wamanzi ococekileyo umisela imigangatho karhulumente, kodwa urhulumente usoloko ejongene nokuphumeza kwaye amkele imimiselo engqongqo. Ngokomzekelo, iKhalifoniya, ifumene i-Chrean Air Active Active ukumisela imigangatho yayo yokukhupha imoto. Ngokwahlukileyo koku, amaphondo amaninzi afumana ulawulo lwe-Trump awawunciphisayo umenzi we-carnicioksi yase-conetyhidia (ngokuba, ulawulo lwe-Trump lwarhoxisa i-cova i-cookin virus e-ognobordelt) lwacekelwa phantsi kwenkundla ephakamileyo, yaye lubuyiselwa endaweni ye-Trumplence.

Ulawulo lwemipu

ISigqibo sesibini soHlaziyo silawula ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, kodwa oorhulumente borhulumente borhulumente noorhulumente balawula ukuba nompu. UMthetho woLawulo lweGun-Gam-uLawulo lowe-1968 kunye noMthetho weSigqeba soKhuselo loMmandla wesiXhosa noMdabi weSiphendu oMbindi weSisesiseko. Noko ke, amatyala amisele imithetho eyahlukeneyo, ukusuka ekubeni imvume ithwale kumazwe athile ukuya kulawulo lwemvelaphi yendalo kunye nokuvalwa kwezixhobo zokulwa. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sifuna ukuba imithetho yeMipu yeMipu yeNkundla ye-New York Rifle & Lamp; iPistol Association v. Bruen [202] ihla ulawulo olungqongqo lwezikhuthalo olufihliweyo olufihlakeleyo, iphethe ulawulo lweSixeko-RGenel. Oku kukhuthaza ukuba imithetho yembali ibangele ukuba imicimbi yemipuljinga yemi, i-ofuthe yemi, i-ofuthelela i-ofu

Indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekuPhunyeni Iimpikiswano Zesizwe

INkundla Ephakamileyo isebenza njengesona siphendu sokuphelisa iimbambano zorhulumente.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Eli tyala lisisiseko lamiselwa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unamagunya athelekelelwayo ngaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo, kwaye loo rhulumente akanakukwazi ukuhlawula irhafu. UJaji omkhulu uJohn Marshall wabhala ukuba "amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa," kwaye umGaqo-siseko ufumaneka ebantwini, hayi kumazwe. Oku kwaqinisa igunya elibanzi lorhulumente kunye nomgaqo-siseko ongenakuthintela imisebenzi esemthethweni karhulumente.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Eli tyala lacacisa umgangatho weChwethengiso uClaus, likholelwa ukuba amandla eNgqungquthela yolawulo lwezorhwebo emantla phantse abhekisele kwiintlobo zonke zorhwebo ezinqamleza imigca karhulumente. Lo mthetho wanika urhulumente urhulumente amandla okulawula uqhutyo, yaye kamva, iindawo ezifana namalungelo abantu, imigangatho yempatho yezenkcubeko kunye nokhuseleko lwemekobume.

EUnited States v. Lopez (1995)

Kumda onqabileyo wamandla omthetho wezorhwebo, iNkundla yawisa phantsi uMthetho weMimandla yeSikolo Esikhululekileyo seGun. INkundla yaqiqa ngelithi ukuba ukuba nompu kufuphi nesikolo akuchaphazelekanga kakhulu kurhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle, ukuphawula ukubuya kwemeko yoburhulumente. Amatyala alandelayo afana United States v. Morrison[FL:1] [2000] kunye NFIB v. Sebelius[FLT]

ISizwe seQembu leQembu leQela leMicimbi yeQela (208)

Eli tyala lawisa phantsi uMthendeleko weProfessional and Amaterater Sports Protection Act (PASPA), owalelweyo ukuba uvume ukugunyazisa ukubheja ezemidlalo. INkundla yathi iPASPA yayaphula imfundiso echasene nomyalelo-oyaleli-lwazi---------------------kanjani umgaqo wokuba iBhunga alinakunyanzelela ngqo ukuba limisele okanye liqhube iinkqubo zolawulo lwamagunya. Esi sigqibo siye senza ukuba amazwe agunyazise ukubheja ngemidlalo, namazwe angaphezu kwama-30 ngoku enza njalo.

Uxanduva lomgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Ukudibana kwamagunya orhulumente norhulumente kungumphumo obalulekileyo wemfundo, intsimi emiselwe kumazwe kodwa ephenjelelwa ngokukhulayo yinkqubo karhulumente. UmGaqo-siseko awuchazi ngemfundo, ukanti urhulumente wesizwe unendima ebalulekileyo ngokuxhasa ngemali, ngokunyanzelisa amalungelo abantu, nangokubeka ityala.

Umfundi Ongumfundi Uphumelela (ESA)

Eqaliswe ngo-2015, iESSA yathabathel' indawo i-No Child Berind Act yaza yabuyisela emva ulawulo oluthile lwamagunya asekuhlaleni ngeli xesha igcina iimfuno zonyaka kunye nokunika ingxelo. Amazwe ngoku anikwa ubuchule bokuyila iinkqubo zokuphendula, ukumisela imigangatho yemfundo, nokumisela ungenelelo kwizikolo eziqhuba kancinci. Olu tshintsho lubonisa intshukumo yokusebenzisana kwequmrhu, apho urhulumente wesizwe umisela iinjongo ezibanzi kodwa umisela isigqibo ngendlela yokuzifikelela. Noko ke, iSebe lemfundo lisazihlola izicwangciso zikarhulumente zemfundo, kwaye linokukhupha imali ukuba aliphumeleli kwiimfuno zemfuno.

ISihloko I kunye neNgxowa-mali yoManyano

Isihloko I soMthetho weElementary and Secondary Education Act inika imali kwizikolo ezineepesenti eziphezulu zabafundi abasuka kwiiintsapho ezifumana imali ephantsi. Ukufumana isiHloko semali endisilawulayo kwizikolo kunye nesithili kwimfuno zikarhulumente, kuquka ezinxulumene neemfaneleko zokufundisa, uphuhliso lwesikolo, kunye nokusebenza kwabazali. Oku kwenza intsebenziswano yecarot-art-nething: la mazwe amkela imali yesizwe kwaye avumelane neemeko ezithile zikarhulumente.

Iingxubusho eziqhelekileyo neMigangatho

Inyathelo lokuqala leMigangatho yeSizwe esiQhelekileyo saseCore, elaphuhliswa ngabalawuli besizwe neentloko zemfundo, lamkelwa ngokuzithandela ngamaphondo amaninzi. Noko ke, izihlomelo zorhulumente (njengeminye imfumba ukuya kwimiqathango ePhezulu kunye nezikhobo ezivela kuNo Child Ekhohlo) zakhuthaza ukuthathwa komzinzo, zakhokelela abagxeki ukuba bajonge uMbutho njengonochuku lwamazwe. Amazwe amaninzi kamva arhoxa okanye ahlaziyishela imigangatho, abalaselisa impembelelo yezopolitiko yempembelelo karhulumente kwimfundo.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni nemfundo ekhethekileyo

Imithetho yomanyano enjengethi Antess of Diculture Education Act (IDEA), iSihloko se-IX, kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo kaNontlalo-ntle ayalwalela ucalucalulo kwaye kufuneka kubekho izivumelwano zokubonelela ngeenkqubo ezifanelekileyo zemfundo. I-IDEA igunya elichaza ukuba ibone imfundo efanelekileyo kawonke-wonke (FAPE) kubafundi abaneziphene, ngokuxhasa intlawulo lwemali ehlawulela iindleko. Amazwe asebenzisa ezi nkqubo kwaye ayakwazi ukuvelisa iinkqubo ngokwemigaqo yorhulumente, kodwa afumana imigaqo-mvume (umz., ukuphengulula ingqeqesho engaphantsi kwesohlwayo) agcina urhulumente ebandakanye kakhulu.

Isiphelo: Ingcinezelo Enyamezeleyo Yomanyano

Amagunya angenayo oorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente asisiso isithintelo kodwa luphawu lwenkqubo yaseMerika oluvumela ububhetyebhetye, uvavanyo, kunye nengxoxo eyomeleleyo. Noko ke, esi sakhiwo sikwakhuthaza ingxabano, ukungaguquguquki, kunye nokudideka. Ukusuka kumthetho wolu didi ukuya kuMedicaid, ukusuka ekunyanzelweni kwemiqathango yokufuduka ukuya kwimigangatho yemfundo, umlinganiselo wesigqeba sorhulumente uhlala uyinto ekhoyo ebangela utshintsho lwezopolitiko kunye neenkcazelo zezomthetho. Ukuqonda oku kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundisi abalungiselela abafundi ubomi boluntu. Ngokuhlolisisa izisemgceleleni, imibambo yesiseko, kunye neemeko zehlabathi, abafundi kunye nabahlali belizwe bayakwazi ukuqhuba iinguqu-thsuntsword besazi solawulo ngolwazi olukhulu.

Ukuhlaziywa ngokubhekele phaya kwale miba, abafundi bangahlola umbhalo opheleleyo womGaqo-siseko kwiSizwe soovimba, okanye bahlole izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo-Oyez. INkonzo yoPhicotho-zincwadi ipapasha iingxelo ezingeyonkqubo yorhulumente enika uhlalutyo olungeyonxalenye yecarticus. Ukusebenzisa ezi zixhobo kunceda abantu baqonde ngakumbi indlela asebenza ngayo amandla orhulumente norhulumente kunye nesizathu sokuba abaluleke ngayo.