Isiseko Sobuchule Nendaleko Yobuntsundu

Intanda-bulumko yokwalathisa njengentanda-bulumko engqinelanayo yaduma ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini njengempendulo koko abaxhasi bayo bakugqala njengesenzo sokugweba. Le mfundiso ithi umbhalo wesiseko ufanele uchazwe ngokwentsingiselo kawonke-wonke owawunayo xa wagunyaziswa. IJaji Antonin Scalia, ilizwi eliphambili kule ndlela, ingqina ukuba ubuGqrhwarha bokuqala buthintela abagwebi ekubekeni imithetho yobuqu kwaye bugcina igunya ledemokhrasi ngokunamathela kwisiseko esimiselwe ngabantu ngenkqubo ye-ratiation.

Indlela yoqobo yahluke kwi "umgaqo-siseko ophilayo" indlela, ephikisayo ukuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko iguquka ngokutshintsha kwentlalo-ntle. Izazi zoqobo zimi ngelithi utshintsho — hayi ukutolikwa kwakhona kwezango zomthetho — zisisixhobo esifanelekileyo sokuvumelanisa umGaqo-siseko neemeko ezintsha. Olu lwahlulo lwentanda-ntanda-bulumko luba nesiphumo ingakumbi xa inkundla zijongene nemimandla yomthetho apho umGaqo-siseko uthe cwaka okanye apho ukuqonda kokuqala kubonakalisa amaxabiso angqubanayo neembono zale mihla zokusesikweni.

Amalungelo oluntu amela enye yezona ndawo zilucelomngeni kwingcamango yoqobo. UmGaqo-siseko ukhankanya amaMelika Omthonyama kuphela ngokwemeko ezilinganiselweyo: uMbutho wezorhwebo unika iBhunga uClaus amandla okulawula ezorhwebo "ngezizwe zase-Indiya," kunye nolwahlulo lweGaqo-nkqubo leshumi elinesine lokuHlaziywa kwemida eNgahlawulwayo. Ezi mbekiselo zishiyeka imibuzo emikhulu echaza ulawulo, amalungelo esivumelwano, ilizwe, kunye nomgangatho wamandla olawulo phezu kwamazwe azimeleyo.

Ukwakhiwa koBukhosi beMigaqo-siseko

Kude phambi kokuba umGaqo-siseko ubhaliswe, amagosa eekoloni aseYurophu avuma ukuba amagosa elizwe lawo njengamazwe obukumkani anokungena kwizivumelwano. Olu lwamkeleka lwaqhubeka phantsi kolawulo lwamaBritane kwaye lwazuzwa njengelifa yi-United States emva kokuzimela. Isivumelwano somGaqo-siseko sika-Clausle, esigunyazisa uMongameli ukwenza izivumelwano necebiso kunye nemvume yeNdluna, ngokuphandle siyavuma ukuba izizwe zamaIndiya zibambelele kubume basemzini ukwenzela iinjongo zokwenza isivumelwano.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa oko abaphengululi bezi mini bakubiza ngokuba yi "Marshall Trilogy" — amatyala amathathu asisiseko agqitywe yiNtloko yeJaji uJohn Marshall phakathi ko1823 no1832 aqhubeka ebumba umthetho we-Indiya. Johnson v. McInsh, Marshall wachaza "imfundiso efihlakeleyo," ephethe oko kufunyaniswe yi-indawo ye-ibhuliki yelizwe laseYurophu kwaye wayifaka endaweni yayo ngelungelo lokuhlala phantsi kolawulo olulawulayo. [[FLTLT:]][FLT]] Cookevv v. [FLT] Georgia [[FLTLT] [FLT] kunye nelizwe lohlanga.[Flct:3] [irgoriansf]

Ezi zigqibo zavelisa isiseko esisaqhubeka sinempembelelo kakhulu kodwa sikwaphikisana ngokunzulu. Uhlalutyo loqobo lweMarshall Trilogy lutyhila ukuba uMarshall ngokwakhe wasebenzisa iimfundiso zobuthangalashela kunokuba asebenzise ngokungqongqo umbhalo womGaqo-siseko waseYurophu — nto leyo eyenza ukuba lukhuni nayiphi na ingxelo yomthetho wesizwe wamaIndiya. Le mfundiso ifunyenweyo, ngokukodwa, iye yagxekwa ngokubanzi njengentsomi yobuhlanga eyayithethelela ukulahlwa kwelifa lelizwe.

Ukuqhelisela Unqulo Lobuntama — Iziganeko Eziphambili ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Imfundiso Yamalungelo Omntu

I-United States yangena kwizivumelwano ezininzi namazwe oluntu phakathi konyaka ka-1778 no-1871, xa iKhomko yaphelisa ukwenza isivumelwano. Le zivumelwano zagcina ukuzingela, ukuloba, ukuhlanganisa nokuhlala kumalungelo esizwe asaqhubeka equkwa namhlanje. Ukutolikwa kolwimi lwesivumelwano koqobo kuye kwavelisa iziphumo ezithe zahluka-phinda-phindeka ngokuxhomekeke kwinkundla nakwingxelo yembali ekhoyo.

iUnited States v. Winans, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamisa umthetho wokuba izivumelwano zithathwe njengemityikityo yelizwe zaziya kuziqonda — uluhlu lwemithetho yokwakha oluvumelana nemigaqo yokuqala ngokuchaza ukuqonda kwamaqela amabini ngexesha lesivumelwano. Olu luhlu lwecawa luye lwangundoqo kwingqwalaselo ezininzi zesizwe, kuquka amatyala aqinisekisa amalungelo okuloba kwimimandla ye-Pacific Northwest neGreat Lakes.

Abahlalutyi bobuNtloko bokuqala, nokokuba iinkundla zisebenzisa ngokukhetha iindlela zobuGqaba kumatyala eengingqi. Xa ingxelo yembali ithembisa ukungqubana nemithetho yesizwe elandelayo, iinkundla zisoloko zithobela isenzo sobungqungquthela kwixesha elizayo kunokuba ziqonde kwasekuqaleni. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi United States v. Jicarilla Apache National ubonise olu xinzelelo: iNkungabopheleleki kwimisebenzi yomthetho omnye wesizwe kwizizwe ezithenjiweyo, nangona ulwalamano olumiselwe kwiinkulungwane ezininzi zomnqophiso kunye nomthetho we-Stalog, ucaphula u-mvo "lo-Origist" lolwalamano oluthe lulukholo.

Ilone Wolf v. Hitchcock kunye nemfundiso yamandla

Mhlawumbi akukho tyala libonisa uxinezeleko phakathi kobuTshana kunye namalungelo oluntu olude kune Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock. Apho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iBhunga linamandla "oyena mandla aphezulu" kwimicimbi yase-Indiya — amandla amakhulu kangangokuba angenakwenzeka ngelinye ixesha anokungena zivumelwano zesivumelwano zesizwe ngaphandle kwemvume yesizwe, ngaphandle kwentlawulo yemali. Ityala elibandakanya iMedicine Lorty yango ka-1967,, eyaqinisekisa ukuba akukho lizwe linye lizinziwa ngaphandle kwemvume yamalungu amathathu akhulile. Umthetho wadlulisa umthetho wobuzwe wonke angenayo kwaye uvula intabalala engekho nkonzo ye-Indian.

Uhlalutyo lwantlandlolo lwe- Lone Wolf lubonisa. Akukho nto emgceni wezombhalo enika iBhunga igunya elingenasiphelo kwimpahla yesizwe. Isivumelwano sika-Claus sifuna ngokucacileyo ukuvunywa kwezivumelwano. Kodwa iNkundla yakha imfundiso yamandla e-plenary eyawaphelisa ngokunempumelelo amalungelo esivumelwano uMgaqo-siseko owawamkelayo. Oku kwenza ukuba, abaphengululi abaninzi baphikisane , babonisa ukuba i-lisiqinisekiso sokuqala asikokukhusela abantu aba-IURGrentshile — inokuba iyakwazi ukuqinisa ngokulula ukufakwa kwamandla enqanawa kwisakhiwo somGaqo-siseko santlalo.

McGirt v. Oklahoma nentsingiselo yokuqala yeDiagno

Isigqibo samashumi amabini anamashumi amabini anesithandathu ku uMcGirt v. Oklahoma imela umsebenzi obalulekileyo wokuqiqa kwantlandlolo kumalungelo esizwe. Ityala libuza ukuba ummiselo wohlanga wabekwa ngokuchasene nomthetho wequmrhu olandelayo. Umthetho womthetho woburhulumente uGormoth wasebenzisa indlela engqongqo yobuchule yokuyila, uhlolisisa umbhalo wesivumelwano owamisela eso sabelo kunye nemimiselo eyasinciphisa ngokulula. Ukufumana kungekho lwimi lucacileyo lokususa ulawulo, iNkundla ibambe ukuthi isicwangciso sasala sisebenza ngokulinganayo ngenxa yemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho phantsi komthetho we-Majojor Crimenti.

Isigqibo saphinda saphinda saqinisekiswa ukuba izivumelwano kufuneka zihlonelwe ngokwentsingiselo yazo yantlandlolo — umgaqo ovakalayo kwimimiselo yakudala. Uluvo lweGorfo lwagxininisa ukuba "urhulumente wesizwe wathembisa uCreek Uhlanga olusisigxina" kwaye "ukunganikwa kwamazwi ombhalo kunye nomongo wemimiselo onxulumeneyo ubonakalisa ngokucacileyo ulwaphulo lwesithembiso."

Kanti [[NTLT: 0] McGirt ibangele ugxeko olubalulekileyo kubaphengululi besigqibo ababuza ukuba iziphumo zesigqibo ziyavisisana nolwazi lokuqala lwamandla orhulumente kwimicimbi yase-Indiya. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi imfundiso yamandla agqalwayo ebhaptiziweyo ebhaqwayo kwi Lone Wolf kumele ukuba ilawule iziphumo, ukuvumela ukufunyanwa kwento edityanisiweyo. Ngalo ndlela ingqina ukuba uqobo, njengayo nayiphi na indlela yokucacisa, ayiveli ngokulula iimpendulo ezidibanisileyo — ifuna ukuba abagwebi benze ukhetho malunga nelungelo lokuqala nokudibanisa imisonto yembali.

Umlinganiselo wobuntsundu kumxholo wamalungelo oMdabu

Ukusetyenziswa kobuGaqo-siseko kumatyala amalungelo esizwe kuphakamisa iingxaki eziliqela ezisisiseko. Okokuqala, inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko yantlandlolo yaphatha abantu bobuhlanga njenge-oksidenti yomthetho-siseko — ngaphandle kokuba babe ngabemi, bengabalwanga ngenjongo zokumela, kwaye babe phantsi kwegunya lesizwe elalingalungelelwaniswanga ngamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Indlela yokuchaza amalungelo amkelekileyo aloo mithetho yokuqala ebeka ubomi esichengeni sokwahlukana nomgangatho omele umiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko.

Okwesibini, ubuBhodi budibana nobunzima xa ingxelo yembali ityhila iintsingiselo ezininzi, ezikhuphisanayo. Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko babeneembono ezahlukeneyo ngolongamo loluntu, izibophelelo zesivumelwano, nemida yamandla orhulumente. Iingxoxo zokudityaniswa kwamaqela azinakuvumelana okucacileyo kule mibuzo. Ngoko ke abalandeli bembali kufuneka bakhethe phakathi kwemithombo ekhoyo ngeendlela ezibonisa ngokungenakuphepheka iimfuno ezingaphaya kwentsingiselo yantla.

Okwesithathu, ukugxininisa kwenkcazo yombhalo osisigxina kuhlala ngokungachananga nobume obunamandla bolwalamano lwesizwe sorhulumente. Umzekelo, uxanduva lokuthembana, luye lwaguquka kwiinkulungwane zokwenza isivumelwano, umthetho wezomthetho, kunye nezigqibo zomthetho wezomthetho zisenza isiqu seembopheleleko ezithe akukho mzuzu upheleleyo wembali. Indlela yomntu wakuqala ephelisa olu lwalamano ngethuba elithile isenokusilela ukuchaza ukuphuhliswa okuqhubekayo kwezithethe ezisemthethweni eziyimfuneko kulongamo lwesizwe.

I-Indiya Commerce Claus ingumzekelo oluncedo. Abanye abaphengululi benkqubano baphikisa ngelithi le mithetho inika iNgqungquthela igunya elilinganiselweyo kurhwebo nezizwe — igunya elingayi kubandakanya ulawulo olubanzi nokuthemba iimbopheleleko ezisetyenziswa ngurhulumente wesizwe ngoku. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi ibinzana, elifundwa ngokusekelwe kwimbali yembali kunye namandla esivumelwano, lixhasa igunya elikhulu lorhulumente. Ukungavumelani kubonakalisa ukungaqiniseki okunzulu ngendlela inzululwazi yendalo emele isetyenziswe ngayo xa ubungqina bembali buxhasa iinkcazelo ezininzi ezisengqiqweni.

Uhlalutyo olubanzi lwale ngxoxo ye-juristrulitial, i-ofisi yeJaji yesizwe inika ubuncwane kwiSebe leJaji loLawulo lweSizwe loMgaqo-siseko. Imali yamaLungelo aMazwe aseMelika [ igcina kwakhona inkcazo yomthetho ebanzi kunye nocaciso olufutshane lwezomthetho kunye noluthetha ngenkcazelo yantlandlolo kwisizwe.

Imisebenzi Yesakhelo edityanisiweyo

Ezinye iindlela zokuchaza ziye zacetyiswa ukusingatha imiqathango yobuGaqo-siseko kubume bamalungelo abantu. I "umgaqo-siseko ophilayo" indlela, egxininisa ukuchaza amaxabiso entlalo kunye neemeko ezitshintshayo, isetyenziswe zezinye iinkundla ukuqaphela ulawulo lwesizwe kwiindawo apho inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko yantlandlolo ingazange inikezele lukhuseleko olucacileyo. Abameli bale ndlela baphikisa ukuba ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko kufuneka kubangele ukungalungisi okungundoqo komgaqo-siseko wakuqala.

Isiseko somthetho-siseko somthetho oqhelekileyo" sichaza imigaqo ethile esisiseko — kuquka ukuhlonelwa kwezivumelwano nokuvunywa kolawulo lwesizwe sesizwe sesizwe — njengezithethe eziphuhliswa ngokwenkqubo yezomthetho kunokuba zibe nentsingiselo emiselweyo yentsingiselo yegama. Le ndlela iye yanempembelelo kwiimeko ezibandakanya ulwalamano lokuthembana kunye nomgangatho wolawulo lwesizwe.

"Intsebenziswano ecacileyo" ifuna ukufumana ezinye iintsingiselo zantlandlolo ezicinezelwe okanye ezicelwe phantsi kwingxelo elawulayo yomgaqo-siseko. Abanye abaphengululi baye baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko, eqondwa kakuhle, ivunywa ngolwamandla ulawulo lwesizwe kwaye ibekwe iimbopheleleko ezinyanzelekileyo kurhulumente wesizwe ukukhusela amazwe kunye norhulumente ozimeleyo. Le ngxelo yokuzihlaziya ivavanya ukuba ubukho bakuqala bukhokelela kwiziphumo zokuba ingxaki yoluntu.

Unyango olunzulu lolwazi oluchaza ezi mpikiswano, i-Udibanisenonity yeChicago Coase-Sandor Institute for Law and Economics ipapashe amaphepha asebenzayo ahlola ubuExplorist kunye nomthetho wengingqi yamaIndiya. Ngaphezu koko, i-FLT [FULT:2] Faceral Register Bureaunication of Indian [ inika umongomo wolawulo ukuze kuqondwe indlela ezichaphazele ngayo inkqubo yokusebenza.

Uxanduva lweNkxaso neNkxaso

Ingxoxo yobuQhosa ineziphumo ezingqalileyo kumalungelo abantu bobuzwe kunye nenkqubo karhulumente. Ukuqulunqwa kwangoku kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuquka abagwebi abaliqela abaye bavakalisa imbopheleleko kumgaqo-nkqubo wobuGcisa, kuquka iJavathath, iKavaugh, iBarrett, kunye noThomas. Indlela yeNkundla ejikayo kumthetho wamaIndiya olawulayo iza kugqiba iziphumo ezibandakanya ulawulo lwesizwe, impilo-ntlalo-ntle yabantwana phantsi koMthetho we-Indiya Child Welfarelfare, ukuzingela namalungelo okuloba, kunye nomgangatho wesizwe wezongameli kwisuti.

I- Bracken v. Haaland i-ligitation, eyacell'iilwano ngomGaqo-siseko we-ICWA, yamisela intelekelelo yotoliko lwantlandlolo. I-Plactiff yaphikisa ukuba i-ICWA igunya leBhunga elingaphaya kwegunya leCuarting ngaphansi kwe-Indiya Commerce Claus kwaye yaphula imigaqo elinganayo yokhuseleko — iingxoxo ezisekelwe kufundo olumxinwa lwentsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa i-ICWA kwisigqibo sokuyila nokwakha, kodwa ityala latyhila ulwahlulo olunzulu phakathi kwemithetho emalunga nendlela ezimele zisetyenziswe ngayo kumthetho wasekuhlaleni.

Ikamva lobuNtloko besivumelwano sesivumelwano sesizwe esicacileyo esifuna injongo ecacileyo yamalungelo esizwe — umgaqo ovumelana nemithetho yezobukho benkundla yokulungisa intsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko yantlandlolo kunye nequmrhu lemizekelo eliye lavela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ePhakamileyo kufuneka yamkele inkundla "yolwano lomnqophiso" efuna intsingiselo yesivumelwano ecacileyo kumalungelo ahlukeneyo — umgaqo ovumelana nozibomhlawulelo lwantlalo ekucaceleni kombhalo kunye nokuhlonela ukuqonda kwantlalo lwamaqela omabini. Abanye baphikisa ukuba inkqumkelo yoqobo ifuna iinkundla ziqonde ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala yemithetho yeSiko-Civil iguqulwe ngokusisiseko yinjongo yesivumelwano semfazwe yemfazwe yemfazwe yesizwe kunye neziphuhlisomthetho womthetho wesizwe.

Isiphelo

UbuGawulayo buhlala bungumsebenzi obalulekileyo kodwa othe waphikiswa ngokunzulu wotolika amalungelo omgaqo-siseko abantu belizwe. Ukusetyenziswa kwawo kumthetho wesizwe saseIndiya kutyhila amandla endlela yombhalo — ingqeqesho yembali, ukuchanabeka kwentsingiselo emiselweyo, kunye nokusikelwa kwayo, ingakumbi xa umyalelo womgaqo-siseko wantlandlolo udityaniswa kunye nomgangatho ophantsi. Amatyala ahlolwayo apha abonisa ukuba ubukho bakuqala abuvelisi iziphumo ezimiselwe kwangaphambili kwiimpikiswano zamalungelo abantu. Bungaxhasa ulawulo lwesizwe xa izivumelwano zihlonelwa ngokwentsingiselo yazo yantlanganiso, kodwa kwakhona lungaqinisa amandla olawulo lwamakoloni xa kufundwa ukugunya-mthetho wokuqala ukugunyazisa ulawulo lolawulo lwe-orhulumente.

Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ephathelele ubuNqaku kunye namalungelo oluntu ekugqibeleni iphakamisa imibuzo enzulu ngendlela ezimele ziqwalaselwe ngayo iinkqubo zomthetho zaseMerika zokungalungisi okusisiseko okwayila umgaqo-siseko. Nokuba ubuBhongi bendalo bungasebenza njengesithuthi sokuqaphela nokukhusela ulongamo lwamaIntatheli — okanye enoba buza kuqhubeka busebenza njengonyanzelo olunjalo — ixhomekeke kukhetho olucaciswayo lweenkundla ezilwenza kwiminyaka ezayo. Oko kucacile kukuba ukudibana kwemithetho yokuqala kunye namalungelo e-IAIAD kuzakuhlala kusisixhobo esingundoqo somqobo somthetho-siseko, kunye neziphumo ezinzulu zezizwe, inkqubo yesizwe yomanyano, yemithetho elawulayo kunye nentsingiselo yokusesikweni kwizithethe zezomthetho-Melika.