Isiseko Solawulo LwamaMerika

Ulwahlulo lwamandla phakathi korhulumente worhulumente worhulumente wesizwe norhulumente luyimbombo yenkqubo yezobupolitika eUnited States. Esi sakhiwo, esaziwa ngokuba yi-somgamshelwano, sayilwa ngabom ngooTata Abasunguli bokuthintela ukuxinezeleka kwegunya nokuvumela ulawulo lwasekuhlaleni oluxolelwa abantu abahlukeneyo. Ukuqonda umahluko ongundoqo phakathi kwala manqanaba mabini karhulumente kubalulekile kuluntu ukuba kufundwe imigaqo, imigaqo kunye neenkonzo zikawonke wonke ezisetyenziswa eUnited States.

Yintoni Urhulumente Womanyano?

Urhulumente wesizwe unegunya lesizwe laseUnited States, esebenzisa amagunya agunyaziswe kulo ngumGaqo-siseko wase-U. Unegunya phezu kwalo lonke ilizwe yaye unembopheleleko kwimicimbi echaphazela uhlanga lonke, njengenkqubo yamanye amazwe, ukhuseleko lwesizwe, urhwebo lwezorhwebo, kunye nenkqubo yemali. Isakhiwo sikarhulumente worhulumente wasekuhlaleni sahlulwe ngamasebe amathathu alinganayo:

  • [[NTL:0] Isebe elinobuni: Lenziwe yiNdlu yeeNdlu zeMali neNdlu yabameli (ngokuququzelela, iBhunga), elisebe linembopheleleko yokwenza imithetho karhulumente, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle, kunye nokulawula irhafu kunye nokusebenzisa imali.
  • Isebe eliphumezayo: eliphethwe nguMongameli, elisebe linyanzelisa lize limisele imithetho karhulumente, liqhuba ulwalamano lwamanye amazwe, liyalela imikhosi exhobileyo, limisele namagosa asekuhlaleni (aphantsi kokuqinisekiswa kweNtlanganiso).
  • Isebe le-judicial: Ukuxhasa iNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente, elisebe lichaza imithetho karhulumente, lihlola ubugqeba balo, licombulule impikiswano ebandakanya imimiselo karhulumente okanye umGaqo-siseko.

Amandla karhulumente wezwe lonke adweliswe ngokuyintloko kwiGatya I, iCandelo lesi-8 loMgaqo-siseko, elidwelisa amagunya akhethekileyo afana nokuyila imali, ukuseka iiofisi zeposi, nokulawula urhwebo phakathi kwamazwe. ULawulo loMphetho-mda lweshumi lugcine onke amalungelo anganikwanga urhulumente worhulumente okanye angavunyelwanga kumazwe okanye kubantu.

Yintoni Urhulumente Karhulumente?

Urhulumente osebenza phakathi kwemida nganye kumazwe angamashumi amahlanu. Banemithetho-siseko yabo, edla ngokubonisa isakhiwo sorhulumente ngequmrhu elilawulayo (i-governor), iqumrhu lowiso-mthetho (ngokuqhelekileyo i-bimadral, ngaphandle kweNebraska ene-nicameral), kunye nenkqubo yokugweba (iinkundla zasentla). Urhulumente unegunya elibanzi kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni kwaye uphethe ulawulo lwemini-mini-yodwa oluchaphazela ubomi babemi.

  • Imithetho yeSizwe: imithetho karhulumente kwimicimbi enjengemfundo, impilo kawonke-wonke, ezothutho, ulwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nomthetho wempahla. Izindlu zowiso-mthetho ezininzi zelizwe ziquka indlu esezantsi (esoloko ibizwa ngokuba yindlu yabameli okanye iNdibano) kunye nendlu ephezulu (iSenate).
  • Governor: Isigqeba esiyintloko sorhulumente, esijongene nokutyikitya okanye ukubeka umthetho karhulumente, ukuvelela amaqumrhu karhulumente, nokuyalela urhulumente woKhuselo lweSizwe (ngaphandle kokuba abizwe kwinkonzo yesizwe).
  • IiNkundla zeSizwe: usingatha uninzi lwamatyala asemthethweni e-U.S., kuquka iimpikiswano zesivumelwano, iingxelo zokwenzakala kobuqu, imicimbi yomthetho wentsapho, kunye nezityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezininzi (ngaphandle kwezo zibandakanya amacala kazwelonke).

Oorhulumente bafumana igunya labo kumgaqo-siseko wesizwe nakwimiqathango yamagunya agciniweyo eMgaqo-siseko wase-U. Kwakhona basebenzisa igunya lamapolisa elingokwemvelo lokukhusela impilo, ukhuseleko, intlalo-ntle, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yabemi babo. Eli gunya lamapolisa linika inkululeko ebanzi ekulawuleni iindawo ezifana nemisebenzi yokwakha, ukumisela imithetho yokwakha, nokubeka imida yobudala ekusebenziseni utywala.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko soMagunya eSizwe

Ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente luchazwa yiSupremacy Claus (Artle VI, Claus 2) yomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ethi umthetho wesizwe ngumthetho omkhulu welizwe. Oku kuthetha ukuba xa imithetho karhulumente neyorhulumente ingquzulana, umthetho karhulumente ulawula , ufumana `````isenzo solawulo singaphakathi komgaqo-siseko'. Noko ke, iDemigrafement yeshumi lisebenza njengokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko wegunya: i-“ amandla angaphathiswanga United States ngumGaqo-siseko, okanye angalelwanga nguwo i-United States, agcinelwa eUnited States, okanye abantu. ̵

Ukudlula kweenkulungwane, ukutolikwa kwala mabinzana kuye kwavela. Urhulumente wangaphambili waxhomekeke kwimikhosi emibini yorhulumente, inkqubo apho oorhulumente borhulumente noorhulumente basebenza kwimimandla eyahlukene kakhulu. Namhlanje, i-U.S. isebenza phantsi kolawulo olusebenzisanayo, apho amanqanaba amabini karhulumente anokuncedisana ekufezeni iinkqubo. Ngokubhekiselele ekusetyenzisweni kweemeko zesizwe. Ngokunjalo, iLindmark ePhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza kwiimeko ezifana ne Mcloch v. Maryland [18])) uqinisekisa ubukhulu bomthetho worhulumente kunye nemfundiso emiselweyo, ngoxa [[FOLD:2] i-United States v[FFFT]

Umahluko Oyintloko Phakathi Koorhulumente Bomanyano Noorhulumente

Ukuqonda umahluko okhoyo phakathi kwala manqanaba mabini kusinceda sicace isizathu sokuba imigaqo ethile yahluke kwiimeko zorhulumente nesizathu sokuba kuxutyushwe eminye imibandela eWashington ngoxa eminye isingathwa kwindawo ethile.

Umda weGunya

Urhulumente wesizwe ulawula lonke ilizwe phezu kwemiba edweliswe ngokucacileyo kuMgaqo-siseko okanye ngokusengqiqweni kulawo magunya. Ngokwahlukileyo, oorhulumente bamazwe banegunya elibanzi kwimicimbi yombuso. I-heuristic: ukuba ingxaki inqamleza imida yorhulumente okanye ibandakanya amazwe asemzini, isenokuba ngurhulumente; ukuba igcinwe kwiphondo elinye i̱ imida, ingushishino yelizwe.

Ukwenza Umthetho Nokunyanzelwa

Imithetho yesizwe isebenza ngokufanayo kuwo onke amazwe kunye namangingqi. Umzekelo, imimiselo yemekobume efana ne-Cec Air Act emisela imigangatho encinci yelizwe lonke, nangona amazwe enokuthi amkele imithetho engqongqo. Imithetho yelizwe, kwelinye icala, isebenza kuphela kwimida yelo lizwe. Oku kungenxa yokuba isantya, ubudala bomtshato, kunye neemfuno zenkcubeko zezobugcisa ziyahluka ngokwemeko-mbuso. Ngaphezu koko, urhulumente wesizwe angamangalela ulwaphulo-mthetho oluqhubekayo kwimpahla yezwe okanye olubandakanya izintlukwano zombuso (umz., ukurhwebela ngeziyobisi kunqamlezo zemida yesizwe), ngoxa uninzi ulwaphulo-mthetho oluqhelekileyo lusingathwa ziinkundla zikarhulumente.

Irhafu

Bobabini oorhulumente belizwe nelorhulumente bafumana iirhafu zerhafu, kodwa kwiinjongo ezahlukeneyo kwaye zinezakhiwo ezahlukeneyo. Urhulumente wengingqi uxhomekeke ngokuyintloko kwirhafu yengeniso (yomntu ngamnye kunye neyombutho) ukuxhasa irhafu yengeniso yesizwe, iSocial Security, iMedicare, kunye nomdlalo kwityala lesizwe. Urhulumente uqokelela ukudityaniswa kwerhafu yengeniso, iirhafu zempahla, kunye nokukhutshwa kwerhafu yempahla ukuze kuxhaswe imfundo, imoto, umgangatho woluntu, kunye neenkqubo zempilo. Oorhulumente basekuhlaleni (oomasipala, amaphondo, amaphondo emfundo emfundo yesizwe) nabo bangayihlawula irhafutheliswa kwaye bathathwa njengeminyele yoorhulumente borhulumente.

Inkululeko yomgaqo-siseko

Urhulumente ngamnye unomgaqo-siseko wawo, oluxwebhu oluphakamileyo lomthetho olungaphakathi kwelo lizwe (ulawulo lwemiqathango yomgaqo-siseko wesizwe). Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe usoloko uthatha ixesha elide kwaye unenkcukacha ezininzi kune-omGaqo-siseko wesizwe, uthetha ngeemeko ezithile ezifana nenkxaso yemfundo, imiqathango yerhafu, kwanamalungelo okuzingela okanye intlanzi. Kwakhona unika amalungelo angaphaya kokhuseleko lwamagunya orhulumente qha, ngokomzekelo, eminye imimiselo yomthetho-siseko iqinisekisa ngokucacileyo amalungelo okusingqongileyo okanye ilungelo lokuzimela imicimbi yobuqu.

Imimandla Yoxanduva: Ukudilika Okunenkcukacha

Ukwahlulwa kweembopheleleko phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente asiloluhlu olungqongqo.

Iimbopheleleko Zomanyano

  • Ukhuselo lwesizwe neMicimbi yaMazwe angaphandle: Ukugcina umkhosi, uqhuba uthethathethwano, ukungena kwizivumelwano, nokulawula urhwebo lwangaphandle.
  • Urhwebo lwezorhwebo nomgaqo-nkqubo wezezoqoqosho: ulungelelaniso phakathi kwamazwe, ukumisela inkqubo yemali ngeFederal Reserve, kwaye ukuphatha ukuphelelwa lishishini kunye nempahla yenkcubeko.
  • Ukungena nokuziqhelanisa: ukumisela imithetho yokungena, ubumi, kunye nokugxothwa (amazwe anendima ethile ekunyanzelweni kolawulo lokufuduka ngentsebenziswano namagunya orhulumente).
  • [[UMTL:0] I-ofisi yeposi kunye ne-ofisi: ibhiniza imali, i-oyile yokushicilela, kunye nokusebenzisa iNkonzo yeposi yase-U.S.
  • ICivil Rightss Ukhuseleko:[ ifaka imithetho yamalungelo abantu, enjengemithetho yamalungelo oluntu ka1964 kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo oBoonta.

Iimbopheleleko Zesizwe

  • Imfundo: Ukuseka imigangatho yokufundisa, ukuxhasa izikolo zikarhulumente, kunye neeyunivesithi zesebe (nangona umthetho worhulumente unika imiyalelo ethile efana neenkonzo ezikhethekileyo zemfundo).
  • Ulwakhiwo kunye nolwakhiwo lwenqanawa: nogcino lomgaqo-ndlela wezwe, iibhulorho, amazibuko, kunye neenqwelo-moya (ngokubonelela ngemali engundoqo kurhulumente ngocwangciso olufana nendlela ephakamileyo yomgangatho).
  • Ukhuseleko noMthetho onyanzelisayo: Ukuphumeza amapolisa, amasebe asekuhlaleni alawula abaphathi-mikhosi, kunye nezibonelelo zokulungisa. Imithetho emininzi yolwaphulo-mthetho yimithetho karhulumente.
  • [[NTL: 0] IHealth kunye neNtlalo-ntle: I-Additing Medicaid, Childreṉ iNkqubo yeHealth Inshorensi (CHIP), yexeshana uncedo lweentsapho ezisweleyo (TENF), kunye nokwalathisa amaziko okunyamekela impilo kwimo yephondo.
  • Unyulo: Ukuqhuba urhulumente, urhulumente, kunye nonyulo lwasekuhlaleni, kuquka ukubhalisa umvoti, ukwenziwa kweplanga, kunye nokuphathwa kwendawo zokuvota (ephantsi kwemithetho yevoti yorhulumente).

Amandla akhoyo (Axhaswe Ngamabini Amanqanam)

Amanye amagunya asetyenziswa ngaxeshanye ngurhulumente worhulumente norhulumente. La mandla akhoyo aquka amandla okuhlawula irhafu, ukuboleka imali, iibhanki zomthetho-siseko, ukuseka iinkundla, nokunyanzelisa imithetho. Xa omabini amanqanaba e-oomasi asebenza kummandla omnye, umthetho wesizwe udla ngokuthatha inyathelo eliphambili phantsi kweSupremacy Claus. Noko ke, amaphondo angamisela iimfuno ezongezelelekileyo logama nje engangqubani nomthetho wesizwe. Umzekelo, urhulumente kunye namazwe angagweba ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemeko-bume, kodwa ukutshutshiswa kukarhulumente kusenokugwetywa kwiimeko ezithile.

Ukusebenza komanyano lwamaqumrhu

Ulawulo lwale mihla lwaseMerika lubonakala ngokuxhomekeka okunzulu phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente. Olu manyano lusebenzisana lubonakala kakhulu kwiindawo apho urhulumente wesizwe ebeka iinjongo ezibanzi kodwa abameli bezalisekisa amaphondo, ngokufuthi esebenzisa izikhuthazo zemali.

Grants-in-Aid

Urhulumente wengingqi unika amakhulu ezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka ukuze afumane iimali kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni ngezipho ezinika inkxaso-mali ezimbini ezingundoqo: ezi zingena nxalenye (ezifakwe kwiinkqubo ezithile ezinjengokwakhiwa kohola-ndlela okanye iinkqubo zesidlo sasemini) kunye nezithintelo (zinika inkxaso-mali ebanzi yeenjongo jikelele, njengenkqubela-phambili yoluntu). Amazwe kufuneka avumelane neemeko zikarhulumente ukuze afumane le mali, nto leyo enokubangela uxanduva xa amaphondo engavumelani nezinto eziphambili zikarhulumente. Umzekelo, urhulumente usebenzise isisongelo sokuzigodlo sokuziisela iindleko zendlela zoohola-ndlela ukukhuthaza amazwe ukuba anyuse eneminyaka engama-21 ubudala esemthethweni yokusela.

Ukuhlawulwa kwenkqubo

Imithetho emininzi karhulumente ixhomekeke ngokuphandle kumasebe karhulumente ukuze kuqikelelwe. I-Ceador Air Act ifuna ukuba kubekho iimeko zokufakelwa kweeProjekthi zikaRhulumente (ZIIP) ezibonisa indlela eziya kufumana ngayo imigangatho yomgangatho womgangatho womoya wesizwe. Ngokufanayo, i-Afford Cance Act yandisa uMicaid (inkqubo edityaniswe ne-inshorensi yempilo enxulumene nesizwe) kwaye iveliswe. Olu manyano luvumela ukutshintsha, njengoko amazwe ekwazi ukulungisa iinkqubo zikarhulumente kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, kodwa lungakhokelela kwiziphumo ezingafaniyo zohlanga xa kukhethwa iinkqubo ezithile.

Iingxaki neempikiswano kuMasipala-Sizwe

Phezu kwayo nje intsebenziswano elungileyo, iimfazwe phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente zixhaphakile. Abaxhasi babelindele ukuba olu xinezeleko lulungiselelwe kwaye balungiselele iindlela ezifana negatya eliphakamileyo kunye neenkundla zephondo ukucombulula iimpikiswano. Ezinye zezona mpikiswano ziphikisanayo kwezobupolitika zaseMerika namhlanje zixhomekeke kwimida yegunya lorhulumente nelorhulumente.

Ukwenziwa kwemithetho yeMali

Umzekelo oyintloko wengquzulwano yesizwe ngumgaqo-nkqubo we-cannabis. Kusukela ngo-2025, amaphondo amaninzi aye agunyazisa umya wokusebenzisa unyango okanye ukuzonwabisa, ukanti iGunya elilawulayo elilawulayo lilunika umlinganiselo weStejimal I imilaliso, liyenza ingabi semthethweni phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Urhulumente wesizwe uye wakhetha kakhulu ukunganyanzeli umthetho ngokuchasene nabadlali abasetyenziswa ngurhulumente, ngenxa yemithetho efana neCole Meyandrandum (nakuba oku kuye kwafuneka kutshintshwe). Oku kugxininisa imingeni esebenzayo yokuthobela umthetho karhulumente kwiindawo apho amazwe aye athatha indlela eyahlukileyo.

Unyanzeliso lofuduko

Ngoxa ukufuduka kungumsebenzi worhulumente, maxa wambi amajelo aye afuna ukwenza indima ethile. Imithetho efana ne-Arizona’ i-SB 1070 (2070) izama ukuqinisekisa ukugcinwa komthetho karhulumente ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukufuduka kufanelekile ngexesha lokumiswa kwemiqathango. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawabetha amalungiselelo amaninzi aloo mthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba ukunyanzeliswa kwabantu abafudukayo kungurhulumente onegunya lolawulo. Noko ke, amaphondo anegunya lokwenza izigqibo ezichaphazela abantu abangengomalungu oluntu ngemithetho yawo, ukunika abafundi abangenayo imvume yokufuduka okanye ukuvala intsebenziswano yezambutho yabaphathi borhulumente.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Amazwe afana neKhalifoniya aye anyanzelela imilinganiselo engqongqo yemeko-bume kune-rhulumente wesizwe. Phantsi koMthetho we-Cec Air, eKhalifoniya, kukho umxhasi okhethekileyo wokumisela imilinganiselo yokukhupha umsila wakhe, amanye amazwe anokukhetha ukuyikhetha ukuyithatha. Oku kuye kwadala imilinganiselo yesizwe ecacileyo yokukhutshwa kwenqwelo-mafutha, ebonisa indlela isenzo sikarhulumente esinokuyiphembelela ngayo inkqubo karhulumente. Ngokuchasene noko, xa urhulumente wesizwe ehlengangenelela kwimimiselo yemekobume, uchaza ukuba ukungavumi ukuvala iinguquko okanye ukuthatha imithetho yawo engqongqo.

Izizathu Ezisebenzisekayo Kubemi

Ulwahlulo lwamandla olukwisigqeba sezwe luchaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi bemihla ngemihla, ngokufuthi ngaphandle kokuqwalaselwa ngabantu. Umzekelo:

  • Driver’ amalayisensi akhutshwa ngamazwana, kodwa kufuneka ahlangabezane nemilinganiselo yokwahlula yesizwe eza kusetyenziswa kwinqwelo-moya ezihlalwayo (Umthetho we-REAL ID).
  • Imithetho yokwamkelwa ichazwe ngurhulumente, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ku bergefell v. Hodges (20) [20] kufuneka onke amazwana aqonde imitshato-yo-ox phantsi komGaqo-siseko enelungelo lokulingana.
  • [[NTLA:0] Impendulo ye-Disaster iqala kumgangatho wommandla nowomhlaba, kodwa xa intlekele igqitha umbilini karhulumente, irhuluneli ingacela isibhengezo sentlekele karhulumente, ivula oovimba be-FEMA kunye nenkxaso-mali.
  • I-pall ye- ifuna zombini igalelo lengingqi (Form 1040) kunye nombuso (ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente akanayo irhafu yengeniso, njenge Florida okanye i-Texas).

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente luyintsebenziswano enkulu nesoloko iphikiswana nentsingiselo yedemokhrasi yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Ngelixesha urhulumente wesizwe enegunya eliphezulu kwiimbambano zesizwe nemicimbi yamazwe ahlukeneyo, ulawula ulawulo oluphezulu kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni kwaye usebenza njengeelaboratori zedemokhrasi zokwenza iinkqubo ezinokusetyenziswa kwiqondo lobuzwe. Ukuqonda umahluko ongundoqo phakathi kwala manqanaba mabini olawulwa ngurhulumente ubalulekile kubafundi, abafundisi, nabemi abaququzelelweyo. [FFON], [FF2], [FFOF], [3] i-FT] i-tragnog.[4]