Isiseko senkqubela elindelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo

I-Baw Procession Claus ne-Actal Protection Claus Protection ne-Fractal Clause zimi njengemimiselo emibini yomthetho wezomGaqo-siseko waseMelika, zombini ezi zisekelwe kuMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine. Oku kuhlaziywa kwasemva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, ezi zigaba zenzelwe ukukhusela amalungelo abantu abasandul'ukukhululwa ebukhobokeni nokumisela umgangatho wesizwe wenkululeko nokulingana. Zidityaniswe zombini, zibumba isiseko samalungelo asekuhlaleni kunye notoliko olubanzi. Oku kuhlalutya imvelaphi yembali, iinkcazelo zemithetho ebhaliweyo, kunye nokungqubana kwale migaqo emibini, kunye nendlela ezisebenza ngayo ngokuzimela ngokwahlukileyo nokulinganayo.

Ngoxa la manani mabini esebenza iinjongo ezahlukeneyo .ukubhekisa kwimigaqo esesikweni kunye nokhuseleko olusisiseko, kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo olufuna ukuba abantu abahlala kwindawo efanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo ./Imimandla yabo isoloko idibene. Ukuqonda oku kudityaniswa kwemida kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ethetha ngetyala elintsonkothileyo, ukuzilawula, nemida yamandla karhulumente. Njengomphengululi osemthethweni uDavid A. . Strauss

Imeko yembali: Imvelaphi yoMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine kunye neengcaciso zokuqala

UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwazalwa kucelomngeni olucinezelekileyo lwexesha lokwakha kwakhona: indlela yokudibanisa ama-Afrika asandul' ukukhululwa nezigidi ezine kwibala lesizwe samaMelika njengabemi abapheleleyo. Ngaphambi kokuba lunyuswe, iBhili yamaLungelo yasebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, kwaye amazwe ayekhululeke kakhulu ukumisela imithetho eyayicalula okanye ehluza amalungelo abantu asisiseko. Intengiselwano yemithetho efuna ukuguqula oku ngokumisela imiqathango yomthetho-siseko kwisenzo sikarhulumente.

Iingxoxo Zokushukuma Nezokusetyenziswa Kweziyobisi

Umbhalo weCandelo 1 loMphetho-Mphetho weshumi elinesine ufundeka ngolu hlobo: "Akukho Rhulumente iza kwenza okanye inyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oza kuvala amalungelo okanye ukugoma kwabemi base-United States; okanye nawuphi na uMbuso ongamhluphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho; okanye aphike na umntu okwigunya lakhe lokukhusela imithetho elinganayo. I-'STIRCMTECT ne Provicence Clausss's yinxenye yemiqathango, ecaleni kwamalungelo okanye i-Immunion Classiste, nangona umva ebenganciphi na ukususela ekufundweni kweNkundla ePhaka ePhakamileyo kwi [Indlu] [FLD] [FLD]] [121]

Iingxoxo kwiKhompathimenti zatyhila ukuba abafaki-nkqubo babenenjongo yokumisela i-Acimime Protection Clause ukuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho karhulumente iya kusebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuba bohlanga luni. IKhomishini yeCandelo uJohn Bingham waseOhio, umyili oyintloko weCandelo 1, waphikisa ukuba eli binzana laliyimfuneko ukunyanzelisa imigaqo yeSindululo seNdebenzo nokuthintela amazwe ekumiseleni umthetho wokukhupha umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. I-mthetho we-mthetho ka-mthetho ka-Creasaldale, okwangoku, yayiqondwa ukuba kufuneka kuhluthwe ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla iphelekwe ziinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zokungacalulwa ngemithetho elungileyo, nokuva, kunye nenkundla engakhethi.

Imfundiso Engqinelanayo Nokwanda Kwenkqubo Elindelekileyo

Kwiinkulungwane zeshumi elinesithoba nasekuqaleni kwamashumi amabini, i-Act Procession Claus yadlala indima elinganiselweyo kwimithetho-siseko yesizwe. Kodwa, imfundiso ye uquko-lululo.Ndlela apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa ngayo amalungiselelo eSigqeba samalungelo eMthethweni kumazwe akwiSinyusi-Gawula se-14 (Inkqubo ka-Clausceste/Dramente). Ukuqala ukufikelela kwayo Gitlow v. New York, eyasebenzisa ukhuseleko lokuqala lwentetho ngokukhululekileyo, iNkundla yeNkundla edibanisa zonke iimfanelo ze-RGenethi.

Ukuhlahlela kwakungeyondlela ezenzekelayo okanye ezenzekelayo. INkundla yasebenzisa indlela ekhethayo, ibuza ukuba ilungelo elithile liyi "isiseko somgaqo-siseko wobulungisa waseMelika" kunye "isizathu sokufumana inkululeko emiselweyo," ulwimi oluthathwe kuMgwebi uCardozo's . Connecticut[[FL:1] [1937] [1937]). Ngexesha [inkululeko].[ii-Duncan v.[[FLT]] i-D [1968] [iiiiiindlela], eyafaka ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwetyala kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, iNkundla idityaniswe kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, i-Genestivedstion, kunye nezinye iziqinisekiso ezithiweyo. Namhlanje, amaLungcezungelwayodwa kuphela amaGenetic syst [iast]

INkqubo eQhelekileyo: Imilinganiselo eSubstantial kunye neNkqubo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo yahlulwe ngokwesithethe yaba ziingcamango ezimbini ezahlukileyo kodwa ezinxulumeneyo: inkqubo efunekayo esisiseko kunye nenkqubo encinci efunekayo. Zombini zineengcambu ezinzulu kwisithethe somthetho sase-Anglo - Merika, kodwa iindlela zazo zale mihla zixhomekeke kakhulu kwiGqibelo-mthetho leshumi elinesine.

Inkqubo Elindelekileyo: Ukulungiselela Inkqubo Elungileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkqubo esesikweni ifuna ukuba urhulumente alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo phambi kokuba ahlube umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ukwenziwa kobuchule kuvela ku Mathews v. Elditridge [7], apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo imisele uvavanyo lokulinganisela icandelo lesithathu lokufumana inkqubo efanelekileyo. Iinkundla kufuneka zilinganise: (1) inzala yabucala echaphazelekayo ngesenzo sikarhulumente; (2) ubungozi bokuhlulwa ngempazamo ngemiqathango ekhoyo nangexabiso elifanelekileyo lentelelo eyongezelelekileyo; kunye (3) nzala karhulumente, kuquka inxalenye yemiqathango yomgangatho kunye nemithwalo yolawulo ekwaneenkqubo eyongezeleyo.

Esi sakhiwo sisetyenzisiwe kwimo ezininzi, ukusuka ekuvani isiphene sokhuseleko loluntu ukuya ekuphelisweni kwemisebenzi yomsebenzi kawonke-wonke. Ukuqonda okungundoqo kwe [[FLT: 0]. [Mathews kungokokuba iproceducracal isixokelelwano esifunekayo asikokufumana imfuneko enye-esayizi; kodwa, umlinganiselo wenkqubo efunekayo uxhomekeke kwisilangazelelo somntu esikwimeko yomthi kwaye umongo wento ethwalwayo. Umzekelo, umntu ojongene neenzuzo zentlalo-ntle unelungelo lokuva ngaphambi kokuba afumane, ngexandulo umntu ocel ’ umngeni ukukhankanyelwa kwelayiseli ye-posi yokuphulaphula.

Inkqubo Engagqibekanga Efunekayo: Ukukhusela Amalungelo Asisiseko

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ithanda ukuphikisana kakhulu kuba ibandakanya ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo okugweba okungacaciswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Le mfundiso ikholelwa ukuba inkululeko ethile esisiseko (njengelungelo lokutshata), ilungelo lokuba nabantwana, ilungelo lokuthembeka emzimbeni, nelungelo lokwenza izigqibo zobuqu zobuqu ezisenyongweni, ``zisekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nezithethe zesizwe kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuphazamisana nazo ngaphandle kobulungisa obunyanzelisayo.

Isiseko sangoku senkqubo encinci ekwindawo yomtshato saqala Griswold v.Connecticut (65]), eyawisa umthetho wesizwe ovalayo ukuthintelwa kokungathinteli ukusetyenziswa kokuthintela ukuma kumhlaba okokuba yaphula umthetho "kulungile kwimicimbi yomtshato. UDouglas, ebhala uninzi, edume ngokuphandle ngokuphandle "kunene "kube zii-penbras" kunye "nogs" zeBhili yeBhili yamaLungelo, nangona imiba elandelayo imisela ilungelo elifanelekileyo lokucwangcisa kuMphetho wesinyulo wesine. [FLT:] uDouglas v.[5] v.[FLT][FLT][FFF3]3]

I- Yahington v. Glucksberg (1997) ityala, elicatshuliweyo kwinqaku lokuqala, alibalulekile nje kuphela ngenxa yokubamba kwalo . ukuze ilungelo lokuncedisa ukuzibulala lingabi yinkululeko esisiseko, kodwa kwakhona kubuchule elibuxoliweyo. IJaji enkulu Rehnquist imisele uluvo lokuzilo lwezibonelo ezimbini ezingundoqo phantsi kweMsebenzi ka-Clauske: kuqala, ilungelo lokuncedisa ekuncedeni ukuzibulala limele lingabinanto imbali nesithethe sobuzwe; kwaye eyesibini, kufuneka ibe "kuyinyanisile kwingcamango yenkululeko" ethi "inkululeko okanye isesikweni ikho ukuba ibinokunikelwa ngokwenziwa." Oku kuvavanywa kwaye kugxekwa ngokuchasayo ngokuchasanayo, nokugwetywa kwayo ngokungafanelekanga, ukuchasana nokugwetywa kwayo nokugwetywa kwemithetho-demo-demo-demo-demo-democ.

Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo: Ukusuka Kokwahlukana Kodwa Kuyalingana Kuse Kukuqikelelo Olungqongqo

I-Acticole Protection Claus iye yaba yeyona nto iphambili ekucelcini ucalucalulo nezenzo. Isithembiso sayo sokuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho siye sabangela ukuba ezinye zezona zinhlangano zibalulekileyo zentlalo kunye nezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo eMerika.

Ukukhula Nokuwa Kokwahlukana Kodwa Kuyalingana

Imbali yangaphambili ye-Unicial Protection Claus iphawulwe ngokuqhawula-qhawuka okubukhali phakathi kombhalo wayo kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwayo. Pnety v. Ferguson [1896], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa umthetho weLouisiana ofuna ucalulo lobuhlanga kwiinqwelo-mfono ze-loria, ukwamkela "ukukhetha kodwa ulingana" imfundiso. UJaji Henry Billings Brown, ubhala uninzi, waqiqabela ukuba u-149th Amendment yayijoliswe "ukunyanzelisa umlinganiselo opheleleyo wemilo embili phambi komthetho," kodwa oku kungafunenga kufunanga kupheliswa kwekhethelo olusekelwe kuhlanga. Isigqibo sanika umGaqoshelwano-siseko ku-Cimrow kuMzantsi kunye nokhuseleko lwe-Classics ka-Ex Classssss kumashumi amathandathu eminyaka amathandathu.

IBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) eyathi iNkundla yakwala ityala Planey[. IJaji enguMongameli Earl Warren, ebhalela iNkundla edibeneyo, yabamba ukuba ucalucalulo lwesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwayaphula iSikhuseli sika Claus ngenxa yokuba lwabangela ukuba "ukuziva uphantsi" kubantwana abambalwa "okungachaphazela iintliziyo zabo neengqondo zabo ngendlela engenakuze iphinde iphinde iphinde iphele." INkundla yavakalisa ukuba "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani," umgaqo ozakwanekunwebela kwezinye iindawo zobomi. [FLT:] BBN [5] omnye uninzi lwabantwana bezigqibo lwezigwebo lweNkutshintsha-ogrona yezo yezo siseko sezomthetho."

Uphuhliso Lomatshini Wokubhala

Ukhuseleko lwangoku olulinganayo lulungelelaniswe kwinkqubo yezintlu zokuhlola. Imithetho ehlula icandelo elisekelwe ku ireyithissnsuciations[]. Ngokufana nohlanga, imvelaphi yesizwe, kwaye, kwezinye iimeko, i-"i-"iphantsi kwe- i-''' i-'''' uvavanyo'[[[FLT:]], ithetha ukuba urhulumente umele abonise ukuba umthetho ulungiselwe ngokumngciphekelwe kancinci ukuze usebenze inzala karhulumente. [FLT:], imithetho esekelwe kurhulumente efuna i-[FLT:] kunye noncedo olubalulekileyo lomthetho. [FFFFT]

Isakhiwo esinentsalela saveliswa ngokuthe ngcembe kumashumi eminyaka amaninzi. Umlinganiselo wophando olungqongqo lokwahlula-hlula izinhlanga wamiselwa ngokunempumelelo ku Korendatsu v. United States (19444) (nangona iNkundla yasetyenziswa kakubi ekuxhaseni iJaphani yaseMelika) kwaye kamva omelezwe kwiimeko ezifana ne . [[FLT:][FLT]] [[1677]], eyabetha phantsi imithetho elwa noluvo oluqhelekileyo, eyathimba imigangatho yokucazululwa kwemiya-ma-. Uvavanyo oluphakathi lwezintlulo-thsini) lwavela kwiimeko v[FLD].[FLT][FFFF:][5][6], nto leyo ecwangcisekileyo lomthetho lotywala lobuKromasko-oktoodwa, oluluditya oluqhelekileyo, oluqhelekileyo, oluthe luye luye luye luye luye lwaphu

Ukudibana kwenkqubela elindelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo

Elona siseko lityebileyo lokudityaniswa komgaqo-siseko lilele kudibano lwenkqubo efanelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo. Xa umthetho okanye isenzo sikarhulumente sidibanisa zonke iinkululeko ezisisiseko kunye nokukrokreleka okanye iinkalo ezirhanelwayo, iinkundla kufuneka zihlolisise ityala ngelensi yeentetho zombini. Olu hlalutyo lumbini ludla ngokunika utyebileyo nokuqiqa okuthe kratya okuthe kratya nokuthe kratya komGaqo-siseko.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo engaphantsi njengomgangatho wokukhusela ngokulinganayo

Enye indlela yokuqonda ulwalamano yile nkqubo isezantsi encinci esisiseko: ukuba ilungelo lisisiseko, urhulumente akanakuphazamisana nalo ngaphandle kobulungisa obunyanzelisayo, nokuba ukuchasa kuyakhetha okanye kusehlabathini lonke. Ukhuseleko olulinganayo longeza umaleko owongezelelweyo: nokokuba umthetho awumhluli nabani na onegunya elisisiseko, ungawuchasa umGaqo-siseko ukuba ucalucalula kwisiseko esingamkelekanga.

Isifundo setyala: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Isigqibo [[Nkundla:0] eso ``Izibini''. [Inkundla' yenze i-hodges'' imela mhlawumbi esona sicacileyo nesokubhiyozelwa komtshato ofanelekileyo nesokuqiqa okulinganayo kwimbali yeNkundla Ephakamileyo. IJaji kaKennedy yabonisa ukuba izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwasemgangeni omnye zinelungelo lokutshata phantsi kweerekhodi zombini. Inkundla yokuqala yahlalutya umbandela phantsi kwenkqubo efunekayo, ichaza ilungelo lokutshata njengenkululeko esisiseko esekelwe ku "isiseko somntu ngamnye" kunye "imfundiso esembindini wesithethe somGaqo-siseko". Yajika yaza isithi imithetho efanayo ikhutha izibini ezisusela umthetho-exeni "ikhulula inkululeko ephantsi kwemitshatomu ye-ex" kunye "ibhulo-brite"

Eyona nto yenza uluvo lwaphawula uKennedy yaba kukunyanzelisa ukuba amacandelo amabini angadibaniyo kodwa adibene: "Inkqubo kaClaus neSikhuseli Esilinganayo sikaClaus zidityaniswe ngendlela enzulu, nangona zimisela imigaqo ezimeleyo. Amalungelo apheleleyo kwinkululeko namalungelo akhuselwe ngokulinganayo anokuhlala kwimithetho eyahlukeneyo kwaye angasoloko ehambisana, kodwa kwezinye iimeko nganye ingafundiswa ngentsingiselo kwaye ifikelele enye. Le synthesis icebisa ukuba kwiimeko ezithile, inkululeko kunye nokulingana akungomlinganiselo nje kuphela kwamaxabiso amabini ahlukeneyo kodwa kunezinkalo ezimbini zombono omnye womgaqo wesidima somntu.

Isifundo Semeko: Long v. Virginia (1967)

Phantse amashumi amahlanu eminyaka phambi ewel''', iNkundla kwi i-lovang v. Virginia ngokufanayo idibanise inkqubo efunekayo kunye nohlalutyo olulinganayo. Ityala elibandakanya umthetho we-Virginia owenziwe wangena maqela ahlukeneyo. Uluvo lweNkundla lwamaKrejistarrr lwama inkundla engqukuva umthetho woma omabini uClauslee/__ngokuba yayisekelwe kwimiqathango ye-bala, kunye noMthendeleko kaClaus Claus (ne) ngenxa yokuba yaphula isiseko esingundoqo sokutshata. Inkundla yalahlela ukwahlula iimibuzo ezimbini, igcina ukuba umthetho "ungenakuthethelelwa" phantsi kwelungiselelo. [FLD]

Imbono Ethe ngqo Kumgama Othe Tye

Abaphengululi abasemthethweni baye banikela iingcamango ezahlukeneyo ukuchaza ulwalamano phakathi kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo. Abanye, njengoNjingalwazi uKenneth Karst kwinqaku lakhe elinempembelelo "Inkululeko Yombutho Wombutho," baphikisa ngokuthi la magama mabini adibene akhusela ingcamango ebanzi "yobungangamsha" okanye "ii-individidist" equka inkululeko kunye nokulingana. Abanye, njengoNjingalwazi Reva Siegel, bagxininise iindlela zokukhusela iimpikiswano ezifanayo ezinokuphinda ziguqule iprojectus sycrial sy syn ecutrysssssssssssssssss acripcimp accump asebenzisa ukuchaza amalungelo asisiseko. Sekunjalo abanye baphikisa ukuba izigwebo kufuneka zigcinwe ngokucacileyo kunye nokucotha kolwazi lwemfundiso nganye.

Iinkqubo zekhompyutha zexesha elizayo kunye neeNkxaso eziqhubekekayo

Ukudibana kwenkqubo efanelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo kuyaqhubeka kuvelisa eminye yemibuzo ethandatyuzwa kakhulu yomgaqo-siseko kwixesha lethu. Ukusuka kumalungelo okuvota ukuya ekungeneni kwimithetho yokuzala, abasebenzi neenkundla ziyangqubana namatyala afuna ingqalelo enyanzelekileyo kuzo zombini iirejista.

Ukubhaliswa kwamalungelo kunye neMithetho yeQumrhu

Imithetho yokwahlula iye yaba yindawo ebanzi kwezobupolitika zaseMerika, abaxhasi bephikisana bathintela ubuqhophololo kunye nabaphikisi abaxambulisanayo ngokungenakulinganiswa abathi bade badibanise iqaqobana elincinane, abalupheleyo, kunye nabavoti abaphantsi. Ucelomngeni kwimithetho enjalo lusoloko lukhuthaza inkqubo efunekayo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo. Ingxubusho efanayo yokukhusela ijolise kwimpembelelo egqithisiweyo yale mithetho kubavoti abambalwa, icaphula ubungqina obungokwezibalo obuthi abemi abambalwa basenokuba abanakufumana uchazo olufunekayo. Ingxoxo efunekayo igxininisa ilungelo elingundoqo lokuvota kunye nomthwalo obalulekileyo ofunekayo koku kulowo myalelo.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo ithethe ngale miba kumatyala anjenge '. iMarion County Board yoNqumlo, eyaxhasa umthetho we-Id ka-Indiana ejongene nobuso bayo phantsi kohlalutyo olusekelwe kumthwalo. Inkundla iStevens ilawula uluvo lwasebenzisa uhlolo olufakelwe ekuhloleni isiseko, igqiba ukuba imithwalo yomthetho ilinganiselwe kwaye inzuzo karhulumente ekuthinteleni ubuqhophololo nokugcina intembelo kawonke kukhetho yayisemthethweni. Kodwa ke, iNkuqululo yashiya kuvulwe ukunokwenzeka kokucaciswa kweminyaziso, kwaye ukuvavanywa okulandelayo kuqhubeke ukuvavanya imimiselo yemithetho yokuvota phantsi kweengxelo zozibi zozibini.

Isalathisi soMsebenzi weNkqubo

Umthetho wokufudusa yindawo apho inkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nenkxalabo ezilinganayo zokukhusela zisoloko zidibene kodwa apho amandla karhulumente abanzi kwimicimbi yokufuduka abangela uphazamiso olunzima. Abathathi-nxaxheba, kuquka abaphambukeli abangaxelwanga, bangu "persons" kwintsingiselo ye-Sect Process Claus kwaye ngoko ke banelungelo lokukhusela okuqhelekileyo xa bejongene nokususwa. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawamkela lo mgaqo Zvydas v. Davis, (2001], ekholelwa ukuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuva ukhuseleko ngokungenasiphelo emva komyalelo wokususwa, njengoko loo nkqubo ibotshelelwa inokuthi ingqumba igqibelele kwinkqubo efunekayo.

Ingxaki elinganayo kumongo wokufuduka ayiphumelelanga, ngokwenxalenye ngenxa yokuba iNkundla iye yasebenzisa umgangatho ofanelekileyo wokuhlalisana kwabantu abahlala ngokusemthethweni kwiminyaka emihlanu. . [IiMathews v. Diaz, iNkundla yaxhasa umthetho wesizwe ongazange avume ukuba iMedicara ziluncedo kubahlali abangavunyelwanga ngokusemthethweni abahlala khona kwiminyaka emihlanu, iqiqaqalw'u ukuba "imigaqo yeUnited States ngokubhekiselele kwimicimbi yomthetho yezomthetho wesigqendu-mpaka neyo." kodwa, imithetho yezombuso engafuni ukulawulwa kwe-Medicanberg ijongene. i-Amatyala angomntsko.[FT][3][FT]

Amalungelo okuvelisa kwakhona nokulingana

Umgaqo-siseko welizwe ojikeleze amalungelo okuzala uye watshintsha ngokuphawulekayo kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Phambi Dobts v. Jackson Amen's Health Organization [202], eyalawula Roe[ kunye [[FLT]] ne [FLT]] Plat [4] Plat [uMGUMTHOLO] ukhuseleko lwamanqanqithisweyo lezempilo. Casey[ [199] kwaye ikholelwa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko awuliniki lungelo wokukhupha isisu, amalungelo okuzala ayenziswe kakhulu kwinkqubo elindelekile. Noko ke, abaphengululi nabaxhasi abaninzi baye baphikisa ukuba ukuqhomfa komfako] ukhuseleko olulinganayo, ngenxa yokuba babonise iimpatho ze-calucalucalu-caluent.

IJaji Ginsburg yayingumxhasi ophambili wale mbono. Kwimbono yakhe ekhoyo kwi-Stenberg v. Carhart [2000], waphikisa ukuba "iingxaki zegalel kwimiqathango engafanelekanga yokuqhomfa azifuni ukuthethelela ingcamango ethile ekhoyo yemfihlo; kunoko, igxininisa kwimithetho yebhinqa efuna ukugqiba indlela yokuphila kwayo, kwaye ngokunjalo inandiphe ubumi obulinganayo. [ I-Dobs , abanye abakhuseli be-mthetho abakhuseli abakwazi ukuphelisa ukuqhomfa, bephikisa ukuba le mithetho i-Exmastial que i-Clast, kodwa iya kuhlala ifanelekile, kodwa ibonakalisa ukukhuselwa ngokuqhubekayo kwemigaqo yokuzinzisa elungele ukukhuselwa kwetyala nokukhuselwa kwetyala.

Utshintsho Nezantlukwano Zobuhlanga

Inkqubo yezobulungisa ibhenca ungquzulwano olunzulu phakathi kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo phantse kulo lonke umgangatho. Izikhuseli ezifanelekileyo zengcebiso `njengelungelo lokunika icebiso, ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni, kunye nokwalela isohlwayo senkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga-------ngoyilwa ukuqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa bamatyala baphathwa ngokufanelekileyo kungakhathaliseki ukuba baphi na. Kodwa ingxakeko elinganayo yokhuseleko ivela xa ezi ntloko zisetyenziswa ngendlela engafaniyo ngokobuhlanga. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yalwa nokunqamleza oku kwemiba ngokwee-calulo ebandakanya ucalulo olubandakanya ukukhethwa kwetyala, ukugwetywa kolwaphulo-mthetho, ukugwetywa, nokusetyenziswa kwamapolisa.

uBatson v. Kentucky (1986), iNkundla yathi ukusebenzisa umtshutshisi imingeni yokukhulula izigwebo ezisekelwe kuhlanga kukwaphula i-Commoncial Protection Claus. Isigqibo sanyuswa kwiqumrhu elintsokothileyo letyala elifuna iinkundla zokuvavanya iinkundla ezintathu xa ummangalelwa ephakamisa umtshutshisi imbambazekelo: okokuqala, ummangalelwa kufuneka enze i-prima facie ebonisa ikhethe; eyesibini, umtshutshisi kufuneka anikele ingcaciso yogqatso yogqatso yogqatso lohlanga lwetyala; kunye nesesithathu, inkundla kufuneka igqibe ukuba ngaba umShuphinikazi uluke ngokusemthethweni. [[FLT:] Bson]

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho Kokuba Kude Kufike

Ukudibana kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo asikokufuna ukwazi nje imfundiso kodwa sisakhiwo esibalulekileyo sokuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko okhusela ngayo amalungelo omntu ngamnye kwibutho eliguqukayo. Njengokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ijamelana neengxaki ezintsha ze-"ukusuka kwimicimbi yamanani ukuya kucalucalulo lwemithetho-algorith ukuya kumalungelo abantu abathathi-nxaxheba phakathi kwala macandelo mabini aza kuqhubeka eyila ukuphuhliswa komthetho-siseko.

Esinye sezifundo ezibalulekileyo kwezi zichazwe ngasentla kukuba iNkqutyana epheleleyo yoMphetho-mda nenkuselo elinganayo ayikhuphisani ngamaxabiso kodwa iyaphelelisa. Inkululeko ngaphandle kokulingana ingaba lilungelo kwabambalwa; ukulingana ngaphandle kwenkululeko kungaba lidinga elingenanjongo. Xa iinkundla ziluqaphela unxulumano olunzulu phakathi kwale migaqo, zinikela inkcazelo epheleleyo kumbono weNguqulo ye 144 yebutho labantu apho bonke abantu bekhululekileyo kwaye belingana khona phambi komthetho. Njengokuba iJaji Kennedy ibhalwe [[FLT: 0] [u-Oberge] wift [, "Izizukulwana ezabhala zaza zaza zaphinda zayiqinisekisa indlela yokwazi nokuzinziswa kwemali elungileyo yokuzinziwa kwenkululeko, kwaye izinyusela ulawulo lwe-Genethilkn.[8]

Ukufunda Okungakumbi Noovimba

  • IsiHlalisi seshumi elinesine: Ukusuka kwidinga lezobupolitika ukuya kwiSifundiso sezeNkqutyana nguMichael J. Klarman
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukhuseleko olupheleleyo lwemithetho nguWilliam Cohen
  • Inkqubo elindelekileyo yoMthetho: Imbali emfutshane nguRichard H. Fallon Jr.
  • [[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) - Oyez[[FLT: 1]]
  • [[UMTL:0] Icandelo leSigqibo soMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko 1 - Icandelo elinophawu (Icala loMgaqo-siseko.gov)
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - Iqumrhu loLwazi loMgaqo-siseko [