Ukuqonda Amandla Karhulumente Kwinkqubo Yomanyano LwaseUnited States

Ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente luphawu oluchazayo lolawulo lwamaMelika. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo ye-dipontity apho lonke igunya lisuka kurhulumente osembindini, i-United States isebenza phantsi kwesakhiwo solawulo lorhulumente esahlula amandla phakathi kwemigangatho yesizwe ne-orhulumente. Eli lungiselelo alimiswanga ndawo ``ukumiswa'' ngomgaqo-siseko, ukupheliswa kwemithetho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, kunye nokuyekelela kwezopolitiko. Abafundi kunye nabafundisi abafunda imimandla yentlalo-ntle, ukuqonda ukugoba kwamandla karhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ebekwe ngayo imithetho, enyanzeliswayo, necetyo isiseko somgaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko, iinkqubo zokwenene, kunye neengxatyo eziqhubekayo ezichaza urhulumente onamandla.

Ayintoni Amandla Karhulumente?

Amagunya esizwe abhekisela kwigunya elibanjwe ngurhulumente ngamnye kwimida yomGaqo-siseko wase-U.Azisoloko zibizwa ngokuba "ngamagunya agciniweyo" ngenxa yokuba azinikwanga urhulumente worhulumente okanye azizange zivunyelwe ngokupheleleyo kumazwe. UMthetho weshumi oLandlisiweyo weBhili yamaLungelo wenza lo mgaqo ucace: "Amagunya angagunyaziswanga eUnited States nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye angavunyelwanga nguwo eUnited States, agcinelwe eUnited States ngokulandelelana, okanye abantu." Oku kupheliswa kusebenza njengesiseko somgaqo-siseko solawulo lukarhulumente.

Amagunya karhulumente abanzi kwaye agubungela iinkalo ezininzi zobomi bemihla ngemihla ezingabhekiswa ngqo kwinqanaba lorhulumente. Umzekelo, amajelo alawula amalayisensi omtshato, ukufakwa kwemiqathango yezoshishino, urhwebo lwezorhwebo, umthetho wempahla, kunye noninzi lomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Akwalawula ulawulo lonyulo-zixhobo /ukumisela iiyure zovota, iindawo zengingqi, kunye neemfuno ze-ID ze-ID ezingakhange zidibane mbambano enkulu kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Ngaphezu koko, amaxwebhu anegunya lokuyila eyawo imimiselo yawo, ukuba angayingqubani naloo migaqo-siseko okanye umthetho worhulumente wase-U.S.

ISiseko soMgaqo-siseko: Apho Amandla Karhulumente Avela Khona

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela inkqubo yolawulo olubini. ICandelo I, iCandelo lesi-8 lidwelisa amagunya adwelisweyo eBhunga, afana nokunika imali, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, nokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo. Okwangoku, uLawulo lweshumi loLawulo lweSigqibo lusebenza njengento yonke, luqinisekisa ukuba nawuphi na amandla angadweli kuluhlu `anganqatyelwanga'. UMgaqo-siseko ukwabeka imida ecacileyo kumagunya karhulumente. Umzekelo, ICandelo Icandelo 10 liyakunqanda ukungenela kwizivumelwano, ukukhupha imali, okanye ukudlulisela imithetho ethintela izivumelwano. Le miqathango iqinisekisa ukuba akukho nto inokuthi ingakwazi ukuphelisa umanyano lwesizwe okanye ulungiso lwezoqoqosho.

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ukutolikwa kwemeko ephakamileyo negunya likarhulumente kutshintshile. Igalelo lobukhulu kwiGatya lesi-4 lenza umthetho wesizwe "umthetho wezwe," elithetha ukuba imithetho yesizwe esebenzayo ikhutshwe yimithetho ye- Independent system v. Le ngcamango, eyaziwa njengentlawulo karhulumente, ibingumbandela wamatyala amaninzi engqinelanayo eNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngokuchaseneyo, iNkundla iqinise amagunya karhulumente kwizigqibo ezifana uNational Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, ebekelc, okungamandla ekwalela oorhulumente ukuba bayalele oorhulumente phantsi kolawulo lukaClast Claus.

Amandla Agciniweyo vs. Amandla akhoyo ngoku

Kubalulekile ukwahlula phakathi kwamandla abekelwe umda (ngokuquka amagunya akhoyo) kunye namagunya akhoyo (asebenzisana norhulumente worhulumente worhulumente). Amandla aseleyo aquka ukuseka oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ukuqhuba unyulo, nokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo. Amandla akhoyo aquka ukukwazi ukuhlawula irhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukuseka iinkundla, nokunyanzelisa imithetho. Omabini amanqanaba karhulumente anokusebenzisa amandla ahambelanayo ngexesha elinye, nangona umthetho karhulumente usenokuphelisa umthetho worhulumente kwiimeko zokungquzulana.

Ngokomzekelo, amaphondo norhulumente wesizwe bayakwazi ukuhlawula irhafu yengeniso. Noko ke, ukuba iBhunga lidlulisa umthetho werhafu oyalela ngokucacileyo ukuhlawulwa kwerhafu yezorhulumente kummandla othile, urhulumente kufuneka anikezele. Oku kubandakanya phakathi kwamandla akhoyo nagcinekileyo kwenza ukuba kubekho umgaqo onzima ongokwasemthethweni ofuna ukucaciswa okuqhubekayo.

Imimandla yegunya likarhulumente: Imizekelo entlukwano

Amagunya karhulumente abonakala kwimimandla emininzi yezomthetho. Ngezantsi yindawo engundoqo enemizekelo ebanzi yehlabathi lokwenene ebonisa indlela amagunya karhulumente asebenzisa ngayo igunya lawo.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Imfundo ingumsebenzi ophambili wezwe nowasekuhlaleni. Urhulumente ngamnye unesebe lakhe lemfundo elimisela imigangatho yofundo, iimfuno zokufundisa, kunye neenkqubo zemali. Ngokwahlukileyo, imimandla yesikolo sengingqi iqhubele phambili ezi nkqubo zilungelelaniswa neemfuno zoluntu. Umzekelo, iMassachusetts ibisoloko iyinkokeli kwimfundo ephambili, kuquka ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yesizwe elungele ukuvavanywa ngokwemigangatho yesizwe kwiMassachusetts Comprehensivement Assesment Sy System (MAS). Ngokwahlukileyo, iKhalifoniya isebenzisa i-ASssionsment of California Monicience and Progressssss (CAASP) kwaye iye yasebenzisa iNkskomfacer, iPla iPla iPla yeSikolo soLawulo Lobulali-Rfulumentein, i-Fographial Formagenting, ukujosa izikolo eziphezulu kubafundi abafunda abafundi abaswele kakhulu.

Omnye umzekelo yingxoxo ngesikolo esikhethiweyo. I-Arizona i-Edcionian Education Savets akhawuntis, ivumela abazali ukuba basebenzise imali kawonke-wonke kwiindleko zesikolo okanye zesikolo sasekhaya sabucala. I-Florida inenkqubo enkulu yokufaka isiqinisekiso, ngoxa amanye amazwe anjengeVermont neMaine anenkqubo yokufumana idolophu kwimimandla engenazikolo eziphakamileyo. Le nkqubo yenkqenkqeza phambili ibalaselisa indlela amazwe asebenza ngayo njengeeveratories zolawulo-demokhrasi, ukuvavanya iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuguqula imfundo.

Amanyathelo Okusebenzisa Unyango

I-Affordible Care Act (ACA) ikhuthaza ukuphuhliswa kwemeko-ntle yoluntu ngokuvumela abaxhasi beemodeli beminye imiboniso yokugquma. I-Arkansas, umzekelo, isebenzisa iMedicaid ukwandisa iprojekthi ye-"ediver" ukuze isebenzise i-"ukhetho lwayo lobuqu" olusebenzisa imali yolawulo lwesizwe ukuthenga i-inshorensi yobuqu yabahlali abafumana imali ephantsi.

Massachusetts kwakhona ibalasele njengovulindlela. Umthetho wayo wokuphucula impilo ka-2006, otyikitywe nguGovernor Mitt Romney, ufuna ukuba bonke abemi babe ne-inshorensi yempilo, bamisele i-inshorensi yempilo, banikezele nenkxaso kubantu abahlawulwayo abaphantsi. Lo mthetho welizwano wasebenza njengeplani ye-ACA. Kutshanje, iKhalifoni, iColorado, kunye neWashington zihlole izicwangciso zikawonke-wonke zokubonelela ukhetho lwe-inshorensi yolawulo lwe-yo enxulumene nolawulo lukarhulumente, ibonisa indlela angayinyanzela ngayo inkqubo yempilo esetyenziswayo kulwalathiso olutsha.

Izakhiwo Zezithuthi

Amazwe ahlala kwaye agcina uninzi olukhulu lweendlela zoluntu kunye neendlela, ngaphandle kwe- Interstate Highway System, exhaswa kakhulu ngurhulumente worhulumente kodwa esetyenziswa ngamazwe. Isebe ngalinye lezothutho, iplani, iplani, isakhiwo, kwaye igcina inethwekhi yayo yesiseko somsebenzi. Ngokomzekelo, iTexas, ifake intsebenziswano yohola wohola wohola, ukuxhasa inani labemi bayo, kuquka iprojekthi ye-Trans-Texas Corridator (ngoku eshiciweyo) kunye nophuhliso lwemijelo yendlela. Ngokwahlukileyo, i-Oregon neWashington ijolise kwizothutho ezininzi, ukwandisa iziporo, iibhayisekile, kunye nezinxuwamvo zabemi abahamba ngenqwelo moya.

Amazwe akwalawula imilinganiselo yezithuthi. IKhalifoniya inegunya elikhethekileyo phantsi koMthetho we-Ceaty Air Act ukumisela imilinganiselo yayo yemoto ekhupha ukhupho, engqongqo kunemithetho karhulumente. Amanye amazwe angakhetha ukwamkela imilinganiselo yeKhalifoniya okanye ukulandela eyaseluntwini. Oku kuye kwadala ukwahlukana okuphawulekayo kwimiqathango yezithuthi zenqwelo-mafutha kwaye kuye kwabangela amadabi asemthethweni phakathi kweKhalifoniya ne-EPA kwiminyaka yakutshanje.

Ukunyanzeliswa Komthetho Nokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho

Amazwe anembopheleleko eyintloko yokumisa umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Agcina eyawo imibutho yamapolisa (amasebe asemzileni wendlela, amabhunga ophando), iinkqubo zenkundla, kunye neentolongo. Oku kukhokelela kumahluko omkhulu kwimigaqo-nkqubo yomthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Umzekelo, iNew York inemithetho engqongqo yolawulo lwemipu, kuquka imfuno-mfuno-mpu, ngoxa iTexas inemithetho eyekelelayo evumela ukuthwalwa kwemipu ngaphandle kwemvume (njengokokuba ngowama-2021). Ngokufanayo, imithetho yeminaza iyahluka ngokuphawulekayo: iColorado noweWashington Esemthethweni yeNqutyana i-yokuhlala abantu ngo-20122012, kodwa kwi-2012, i-Idaho neSouth Dakota, ingumphacrank ingue.

Imigaqo-nkqubo yokugweba yahlukile kakhulu. Amanye amaphondo, njengoLouisiana, aye embalini aba namaqondo aphezulu entolongo kunye nezigwebo eziphantsi ezinyanzelekileyo, ngoxa ezinye, njengo-Oregon, ziye zalinga ukucutha intlukwano encinane yeziyobisi kwaye zinciphisa izigwebo ngenxa yezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezingenabundlobongela. Ezi mpawu zibonakalisa indima yesizwe njengendawo yokuvavanya utshintsho lolwaphulo-mthetho.

Iingxabano Zokwenene Zehlabathi Phakathi Kwamagunya Omanyano Namazwe

Ukungavisisani phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente norhulumente akuthethwa nje kuphela ukuba zidlalwa kwiinkundla nakwiindlu zowiso-mthetho kulo lonke elo lizwe. Ukuqonda ezi ngxabano kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda urhulumente waseMerika.

Ukuzicingela

Xa umthetho karhulumente ungqubana nomthetho karhulumente, isivakalisi sobukhulu sifuna ukuba umthetho karhulumente unikezelwe ngelinye icala. Ngaphandle kokuba umthetho karhulumente ungekho phantsi kwemithetho yezoburhulumente. Umzekelo omnye omkhulu ngumthetho wokusingqongileyo. UMthetho we-Eiair Ecape uvumela i-EPA ukuba imisele imigangatho yomgangatho womoya wesizwe, kodwa amaphondo anembopheleleko yokusebenzisa loo migangatho. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ingxabano ivele kulawulo lwe-Trump lwemithetho ye-methane, ecetyo iKhalifoniya kunye namanye amazwe acelwe inkundla. Iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zichaza ukuba zingamkela imilinganiselo engqongqo kunesiseko solawulo kuleyo.

Unyanzeliso lofuduko

Ufuduko lungummandla wokhuhleko olunzulu lwephondo. Ngeli xesha urhulumente wengingqi enegunya elipheleleyo kukwenziwa kwendalo nokhuseleko lomda, amaphondo aye azama ukungenelela. Arizona v. United States (202], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabetha phantsi amalungiselelo angundoqo e-Arizona's S.B. eyayalela amapolisa ukuba ahlole ukufuduka ngexesha lokumiswa okusemthethweni. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba imithetho enjalo ikhutshwe ngumthetho wequmrhu loluntu. Kodwa ke, iNkundla yavumela "kuveza amaxwebhu akho"), ibalase umgca olungileyo phakathi kwentsebenziswano kunye norhulumente.

Kutshanje, iTexas neFlorida ziye zathumela abaphambukeli kumaphondo asemntla bekhalazela imithetho yomda, beqhankqalaza ukumangalelwa nokulwa kwezobupolitika. Ezi zinto zivavanya imida yegunya likarhulumente kummandla obekelwe urhulumente wesizwe.

Ukuqhomfa Namalungelo Okuzala

Phambi kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo 2022 ku iziko loMsebenzi lezeMpilo [, elabhukuqayo . . I-Wade, amazwana aye alinganiselwe kumandla awo okuthintela ukuqhomfa. Emva [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] , achaza ngoku ukuba linegunya elibanzi lokulawula okanye lokuvala ukuphuma komqhumo. Amanye amazwe, amisele malunga nolulawulo olulinganiselweyo, ngoxa ezinye, njengeKhalifoni neNew York, iphume imithetho yokukhusela ukuqhomfa nokuxhasa ukuphuma kwezigula. Olu guqulo lubonisa indlela oluphawulekayo lokusebenza okanye ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho engqinela kwimeko.

Ukwenziwa komthetho okuqhelekileyo kunye nengxabano

Phezu kwako nje ukuvalwa komsasayini phantsi koMthetho we-Guedid Substances Act, uninzi lwamazwe luye lwasemthethweni kwezamayeza okanye kwezokuzonwabisa. Oku kudala ukungavisisani okuthe ngqo phakathi korhulumente nomthetho karhulumente. ISebe leJaji liye lala ukumangalela imisebenzi yorhulumente phantsi kweCole Meinerandum (eyenziwe ngo-2018 kodwa elandelwe njengomcimbi osebenzayo). Noko ke, amashishini anokukwazi ukumelana nemiqobo enjengokubhankiswa nokunikwa kwerhafuthe kunye nesohlwayo yerhafu phantsi kweKhodi yeKhodi ye-Phondo 2809. Oku kuxinezekile kubonisa ukulinganiselwa okusebenzayo kwemeko yamandla xa inkqubo karhulumente iqhubeka inobutshaba.

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekuchazeni Amagunya KaRhulumente

INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengomququzeleli wengxube-ngxubeno yephondo. Izigqibo zayo zibuyile ulungelelwano lwamandla kwiinkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo. Mcloch v. Maryland [1819], iNkundla yamisa ukuba amaqumrhu angenako ukuhlawula amaqumrhu karhulumente kwaye ayimfuneko neyona ngxelo inika amandla achaziweyo kwiBhunga. GIBBON v. Ogden (18), urhwebo lwamazwe athe kratya kwinkte yomgaqo wezo zoqoqosho.

Kutshanje, iNkundla ifumene ulwandiso lwamagunya onyuselo. Kusigqeba se-Shelby County v. Hoder (2013), iNkundla yawisa igatya elingundoqo lamaLungelo afuna amagunya athile phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yonyulo. Esi sigqibo sibuyiselweyo silawulwa ngurhulumente kwiinkqubo zokuvota, nto leyo ekhokelela kwigalelo lemithetho yokuvota entsha ngaphaya kwelizwe. Ngokuphikisanayo, kwilungiselelo elingundoqo leNkuchaza kwetyala bergebb v. Hodges[[FLT:] (20), iNkugqiba kwelokuba umtshato ofanayo-expressyn, singumthetho ochazwa ngumtshato phakathi komGwahlulo-omGene.

Isizathu Sokuba Ukuqonda Amandla Karhulumente Kubaluleke

Kubafundi nabafundisi-mfundo, ukufundisisa amagunya karhulumente asiyonto nje efundiswayo, iziphumo zokwenene zokuba ngummi, ukuphatha, kunye nokwenza inkqubo. Ulwazi lomgangatho karhulumente olawula umcimbi othile lunceda abemi baphumele impumelelo engakumbi. Umzekelo, umntu oxhalabele inkxaso yemali yesikolo yasekuhlaleni kufuneka aqhagamshelane nendlu yowiso-mthetho karhulumente, hayi iBhunga labo. Ngokufanayo, umnini-mashishini ohamba imithetho kufuneka aqonde zombini iimfuno zikarhulumente norhulumente.

Ngaphezu koko, amagunya esizwe libala apho kusenziwa khona inkoliso yemithetho echaphazela ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Umthetho wezaphuli-mthetho, umthetho wentsapho, umthetho wempahla, kunye nomthetho wesivumelwano konke kuxhomekeke ekuzalisekisweni kwemithetho karhulumente, njengoko kubonwa ngokutshintshisana kwempilo, i-inshorensi yokungaqeshwa, kunye nemvume yemekobume. Ukusetyenziswa ngamandla kolawulo loburhulumente kuvumela abantu ukuba babe nenxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi zombini.

Isiphelo: Ulongamo Olunamandla

Amandla karhulumente awahambelani. Aguquka ngokutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko, umthetho, izigqibo zenkundla, nokutshintsha kwenkcubeko yezopolitiko. UMthetho weSimende weshumi uhlala usiba lilo, kodwa intsingiselo yawo isoloko ivavanywa. Imfundo, ubuchule bempilo, ukugcinwa komthetho, nezinye iindawo ezininzi zibonisa ububanzi begunya likarhulumente nokubaluleka kokuphuhliswa kwesizwe. Kwangaxesha linye, imingeni efana nokukhutshwa kwetyala kunye nempikiswano engomthetho isikhumbuza ukuba amandla orhulumente asoloko evavanywa ngurhulumente.

Ukuqonda olu lungelelwano kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda urhulumente waseMerika. Ngokuhlolisisa imizekelo yehlabathi yokwenene . ngokusuka kutshintsho lwezonyango lweMassachusetts ukuya kulwakhiwo lweTexas, ukusuka kwimithetho yokufuduka e-Arizona ukuya kunika ulwakhiwo lwembanje ngokusemthethweni-------(----newe sibona ukuba amagunya orhulumente ngawona mthombo wengxube-ntlobo-ntlobo zorhulumente kunye newongalo lomgaqo-siseko. Njengokuba ilizwe lijongeneentsonga ezitsha kwimimandla efana notshintsho lwemozulu, ulwazi-data, namalungelo okuvota, ingxoxo ekuba apho igunya lorhulumente liphela khona kwaye igunya lolawulo lombuso liqala khona kuya kukhula. Kubafundi kunye nabafundi, ukukwazi oku kungundoqo wokuba ngumxhasi ofundileyo ekulingeni kwedemokhrasi yedemo-demo-yo yaseMelika.