Ukuqonda Kunokuxilonga Kuze Kulungelelane

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ngumgaqo osisiseko karhulumente wase-U.S., owenzelwe ukukhusela naliphi na isebe ukuba libe namandla kakhulu. Amasebe amathathu `e-exex', iproject, ne-justical(enye) aneembopheleleko ezahlukeneyo kunye namandla okulinganisela amandla amanye. Esi sakhiwo sayilwa ngabom ngamaFramers of the Communic, ephenjelelwa ziinkcubeko ezifana neMontesquieu, ephikisa ukuba ukwahlula kwamandla kwakubalulekile kwinkululeko. [[FLT: 0] IPapers yoMbutho , ingakumbi 51, uJames Madison wabhala ukuba "Impatho imele yenziwe ukuba ilwe, ingcape" ichaza indlela enokuthi isebe ngalinye lichasane ngayo ukuxhathisa ezinye.

Ukuhlola okusebenza kumacala amaninzi. UMongameli angawubeka umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga; uMbutho unokuwuguqula loo mthetho kunye nobuninzi obubini obuyi 3-, uqinisekisa okanye ukwala ukumiswa komongameli, kwaye ususa uMongameli. Isalathisi singavakalisa izenzo zeBhunga okanye izenzo ezilawulayo ezingagunyaziswanga ngohlalutyo lwezomthetho. IBhunga linokutshintsha isakhiwo kunye nolawulo lwenkundla zesizwe (kungekuba emva kwemeko yokulungisa izigqibo), kwaye uMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe ngoqinisekiso lweNtlanganiso. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye linokulawula, kodwa ukusebenza kwalo kuxhomekeke kwisebe ngalinye elizimisele ukuqinisekisa igunya lalo.Nkulawula iNkundla ephakamileyo idla ngokulandela.

Amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo

Zizantsi izigwebo ezibonisa indlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo eye yanyanzelisa, yacacisa, yaye maxa wambi yaphinda yaqiqa umlinganiselo phakathi kwamasebe. Ityala ngalinye livavanywa ngenxa yemvelaphi yalo eyinyaniso, ingqiqo yeNkundla, kunye nempembelelo yayo ehlala ihleli kukwahlulwa kwamagunya.

Marbury v. Madison (103)

Eli tyala liphawula ityala elibalulekileyo lamisela umgaqo wokuhlola okugwebayo, ukuvumela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba inciphise imithetho engqubanayo nomGaqo-siseko. Yamisela umzekelo wendima yeNkundla ekutolikeni umthetho nokuhlola amagunya amanye amasebe. Ityala lavela kukumiselwa kooncinanana bokugqibela nguMongameli oGawulayo uJohn Adams. UWilliam Mar Marbury, uSoferestili, wamiselwa njengomthetho woxolo kodwa umsebenzi wakhe awuzange unikelwe ngaphambi kokuba uThomas Jefferson athathe isikhundla. USosiba wephondo, uJames Mary, wala ukulizisa. UMarbury waquluqulus ngqo kwiNkundla ePhaka ePhakamileyo phantsi kweJadiary ka-1789, owanika igunya leNkundla lokukhupha umbatho ukuba ingxelo yendoda yaseMondmis kwiimeko ezinjalo.

UJaji omkhulu uJohn Marshall wajamelana nengxaki: ukuyalela ukuba uMadison adlulise eli tyala kusenokutyeshelwa, kusekwe ityala. Endaweni yoko, Marshall wagqiba kwelokuba iMarbury inelungelo lokuya kugunyaziswa kodwa inxalenye yeSivumelwano seJadiary ivumela iNkundla ukuba iliphulaphule ngokungqalileyo ityala lingenagunya ngenxa yokuba landisa igunya leNkundla leNkundla leSina elingaphaya kwelo iGatya III lomGaqo-siseko elivunyelweyo. Kwisihlandlo sokuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa isenzo seBhunga. UMarshall wabhala ngodumo ukuba "iphondo nelomsebenzi wesebe eligwebayo ukuchaza oko kuthethwa ngumthetho." Eli tyala lalenza lanwela indima yeNkusebenza njengesebe elilinganayo lokuhlola i-gconstrac.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Kule meko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa amandla eBhunga lesibini leBhunga lesizwe lokuyila ibhanki yesizwe yaza yala urhulumente weMaryland ilungelo lokuyihlawula. Esi sigqibo saqinisa ukuphakama komthetho karhulumente kumthetho karhulumente kwaye saqinisekisa amagunya eBhunga achaziweyo. Ityala laqala xa uMaryland wabeka irhafu kwisebe leBaltimore lesibini leBhanki yaseUnited States, enethemba lokuyigxotha kushishino. UJames McCulloch, umgcini-mali webhanki, wala ukuhlawula irhafu. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zamlamela irhafu.

Ibhalela iNkundla yeNkundla engqineke izimele, iJaji ePhakathi Marshall yathi nangona uMgaqo-siseko ungakhange uyinike ngokuphandle iBhunga amandla okudala ibhanki, yanika iNgqungquthela amandla okuqhuba amagunya ayo adweliswe "ngokuyimfuneko nafanelekileyo" indlela yokuyilawula. Ibhanki yayisisixhobo esifanelekileyo sokulawula imicimbi yesizwe. Kumbuzo werhafu, uMary'skada walawula ukuba "amandla erhafuthe irhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa," kwaye ngenxa yoko uMgaqo-siseko nemithetho-siseko umkhulu, akunakuphazamisanakuphazamisanawo nemisebenzi yesizwe. [[FLT.PFLT:0] [5] .V.[FLT] uMary'FLD.[FLD.1] ungumzekelo oqhelekileyo wokuhlola igunya lomthetho nxamnye nomthetho-mthetho, ujongenelelo, ukujonga imeko-mond.

Umzobo osezantsi othe tye

Eli tyala lavavanya ngqo imida yamandla obungameli ngexesha likaxakeka kwesizwe. Ngo1952, ebudeni bemfazwe yaseKorea, uMongameli uHarry Truman wakhupha umyalelo olawulayo wokuthimba uninzi lwezixhobo zentsimbi zelizwe ukunqanda isibetho esinokuthi siphazamise ukuveliswa kwemfazwe. Iinkampani zentsimbi zamangalela, ziphikisa ngelithi uMongameli wayengenalo igunya lokuthatha impahla yecala ngaphandle kokugunyaziswa kwemvume.

INkundla ePhakamileyo, kwisigqibo, esizii 6-3, imela iinkampani zentsimbi. IJaji Hugo Black yabhala ukuba umyalelo kaTruman wawungasebenzi ngenxa yokuba amandla kaMongameli amele avele kwisenzo seBhunga okanye kumGaqo-siseko ngokwawo. IBhunga liqwalasele kwaye lala ukunika uMongameli igunya lokuqhwabela igunya lokusebenza kwiimbambano ngeTaft-Hartley Acty. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba uMongameli, njengoMphathi-Chiko, akanawo amandla ongxamisekileyo okulawula ingxamise imvume. IJack Jackson edumile imisa isakhiwo esineentshukumo zokuquququzelela ukuquququzelela: xa uMongameli eqhuba ngegunyazamrhu, amandla akhe aphezulu; xa engekho kwisivumelwano sombutho (ungcelo ye-Ozo, ixhomekeke kwisiphumo somyutho-mente; ixhomekeke kwimeko engongongongongongongomo; xa egle ithenjiwe, ingulo.[5] uG.[10] uG.1] uG.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Eli tyala lavakalisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke olungekho mgaqo-siseko, lubhukuqa imizekelo emiselwe nguPlesty v. Ferguson. Esi sigqibo sabonisa amandla eNkundla okuvavanya nokuguqula imithetho echaphazelisa amalungelo abantu, esebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo kumthetho karhulumente. Brown enyanisweni] unyuselo lwezimeko ezine ezahlukeneyo kwiKansas, uMzantsi Carolina, uVirginia, kunye noDelaware. Abalawuli baphikisayo baphikisa ukuba izikolo ezingqukuva zazingalinganiyo, zaphula i-Claus epheleleyo yeSikhuseli se-14th Desigra.

IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren, ebhalela iNkundla edibeneyo, yafumanisa ukuba ukwahlukana kwimfundo kawonke-wonke kwabangela imvakalelo yokuba ngezantsi okuneziphumo eziyingozi kubantwana abamnyama. Inkundla yavakalisa ukuba "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo. Esi sigqibo saphikisana ngqo "imfundiso kodwa ilingana" nemfundiso [. Ferguson [18696]] [1] [1] [1] Amashumi eminyaka karhulumente-adictionction, iNkuvava ityala amandla karhulumente aye asungule uJim Crow, imithetho elungelele, kuquka namalungelo omthetho karhulumente alandelayo, kunye neMimiselo ye-Octive: [FF] [5]

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Roe v. Wade walamkela ilungelo lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa phantsi kwelungelo lokuba liziwe. Esi sigqibo sabonisa indima yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabantu nxamnye nokungenelela kukarhulumente, ukubonisa ulungelelwano phakathi kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye neemfuno zikarhulumente. Ityala libandakanya "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey), ibhinqa laseTexas elacel eliwuphikisayo umthetho karhulumente oyekisa ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bukamama. Inkundla, kwisigqibo esibhalwe nguJary Blackmun, yakholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokuzimela, eliboniswa yiMgaqo-siseko we-Graault we-Gray Delmermergatemment, yenza isigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa kwakhe ukumitha.

Le Nkundla yamkela ulwakhiwo olulungelelanisayo: kweyokuqala i-FLT, urhulumente akakwazanga ukulawula ukuqhomfa; okwesibini, yayinokulawula kuphela ukukhusela impilo kamama; kweyesithathu, emva kokusebenza, yayinokuthintela ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bukamama. [ Roe [iii-"i-Dobs] uvavanyo kurhulumente owenziwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho, yaye kwakhona yanyanzela isebe eliphetheyo ekubekeni imithetho enjalo. [i-groot: 2,2] i-e, i-ethe jamplate , iphinde iphinde inqande ukukhupha ukuqhomfa okunzima kwezopolitiko, kodwa iphinde iphinde ichaze indlela eqhubekeka ngayo nale mini. [Amashumi eminyaka amashumi amashumi e-FLT] ithethekelelene] [injini ye-Antall] ithetha intetho ye-Af.[5]

United States v. Nixon (1974)

Eli tyala lathetha ngomda wamandla obungameli kunye nomgaqo wokuba akukho mntu ungaphezulu komthetho. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba uMongameli Nixon kwakufuneka akhuphe iikhasethi ezirekhodiweyo ezinxulumene nehlazo leWatergate, iqinisa igunya lejaji lokuhlola igunya lolawulo oluphezulu. Ngexesha lophengululo lwamanzi, umtshutshisi okhethekileyo wekhasithoba wencoko yabaphathi abamhlophe. UNxon wachaza ilungelo eliphezulu, ephikisa ngelithi incoko yayiyimfihlelo kwaye ijaji yayingenalo igunya lokunyazisa ukuvuma.

Kwisigqibo esingqinelanayo sesi-8-10. INkundla eyayalela uNixice Rehnquis Rehns yaziphendulela ngokwayo, iJaji eyintloko uWarren Burger yathi ngoxa kukho ilungelo eliphezulu lokukhusela imikhosi, intsebenziswano, okanye iimfihlelo zokhuseleko lwesizwe, ilungelo eliqhelekileyo lokufihla imfihlo alinakuyiphelisa imfuneko ekhethekileyo yobungqina kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. INkundla eyayalela uNixon ukuba ajike iikhase iikhase, nto leyo equlethe ubungqina bokungathathiswa kukaMongameli kwigqubuso. Iqinisekisa ukuba uMongameli akasayi kuthintelwa kwinkqubo yokugweba kunye nomthetho ophezulu we-ofisi ye-ofisi ye-ofisi. [[FLT.0]

I - INS v. Chanha (1983)

Eli tyala labetha i-veto yemithetho, iKhomishini yeNkqutyana esetyenziswa kangangamashumi eminyaka ukubhukuqa izenzo zesebe eliphetheyo ngaphandle kokuwisa umthetho omtsha. Ityala libandakanya uJagdish Rai Chanha, umfundi waseKenya owayesele ehleli kwi-visa yakhe. I-Immigation and Naturation Service (INS) yazinzisa ukugxothwa kwakhe, kodwa iNdlu yee-Adventies yadlulisela isigqibo sokuba ikhutshwe phantsi kolungiselelo lomthetho we-Immigration kunye nomthetho we-Nationality Act.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho umthetho we-7-821. Ukuvumela indlu enye yezigqibo zolawulo ukuba ithintele ukwahlula amagunya. IJaji enkulu iBurger yabhala ukuba iBhunga linokuwuguqula umthetho okanye ukubhukuqa izenzo zolawulo kwinkqubo yowiso-mthetho epheleleyo.. Ukunikezela ngooMongameli kuzo zombini kunye nokunikezela kuMongameli ukwenzela ukutyikitywa okanye ukutyikitywa kwemimiselo engaphezu kwama-200. Ityala elivavanyiweyo lokuzama ukulawula igunya eligunya linikwe nguMongameli. Ili lihlala liyinkqubo ye-'i-'iTchad'[Frac.[FT:1]S v.[[FTY''ITY''''''''''iphothothod ice ityala elifanayo kwimimiselo engaphezulu kwama-200. Ityala elivavanywe lityala lokubuyisela ulawulo lomgaqo-mthetho womgaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko somthetho.

Clinton v. IsiXeko saseNew York (1998)

Eli tyala lavavanya uMthetho weLine Ento Veto ka-1996, owanika uMongameli amandla okuphelisa imali ethile kunye neenzuzo zerhafu emva kokusayina isibhengezo somthetho. UMongameli Clinton wasebenzisa i-stem-veto ukurhoxisa amalungiselelo amathathu, kuquka uqhawulo lwerhafu kwisiXeko saseNew York kunye nolungiselelo lweMedicaidr. Isixeko namanye amaqela achaphazelekayo asuswe yi-'transfect'.

INkundla ePhakamileyo, kwisigqibo esingu-6-16-3, yathi iSihloko-siseko se-odolo somthetho sayaphula ngokunempumelelo iSicwangciso sikaCelas somGaqo-siseko. Ukubhalela inkoliso, uMahluleli John Paul Stevens wachaza ukuba uMongameli umele asayine okanye afake isiko lonke; akanakuyilungisa okanye ayibhale kwakhona emva kwengxelo. Lo Mthendeleko wavumela uMongameli ukuba aphinde angene kwindima yomthetho ngaphandle kokudlula kwi-binameralism kunye nenkqubo yokuyinikela efunekayo ukuze agunyazise umthetho. [[FLT.Printo] v. Clinton. Isixelo saseNew York sahlola umkhuseli wegunya eliphethe igunya laza kwaye waqinisekisa indima yesebe le-Rogcontrovies epheleleyo kumthetho. Ityala likwabonisa ukuba ingukuvuma kwemithetho yemithetho engqungqungquthela, kwane neyamabini yoogqesho xa kuxhaswa noMonganiso.

Shelby County v. Hoker (203)

Eli tyala lathetha ngolungelelwano phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente nolawulo lwesizwe phantsi koMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965. UmThetho wafuna ukuba amazwe athile kunye nemimandla ethile ikwenzeke imbali yocalulo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni ukuze kufumaneke imvume yorhulumente ("preclacation") phambi kokutshintsha nawuphi na umthetho wokuvota. Igalelo lokuqulunqa lalisekelwe kugcino-lwazi ukususela ngowe-1964 nowe-1971. i-Shelby County, i-Alabama, yacel icandelo njengelingathangagosathanga.

IJaji enkulu uJohn Roberts, ebhala ngo 5-44 umgaqo wokuqulunqwa, ibambe ukuba yawuphula umthetho wolawulo olulinganayo lukarhulumente yaye yayingasagwetyelwa ziimeko zangoku. INkundla yagxininisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanakubeka umthwalo onjalo kumazwe asekelwe kubungqina obuphelelwe lixesha. IBhunga lingenza indlela entsha, kodwa alizange lenze njalo. [iSiqinga] iSizwe sephondo liqinisekise amandla karhulumente wesizwe] kunye nesebe eliphetheyo elilawulayo elinokwaphula umthetho. Imithetho i-mthetho yaguqula umlinganiselo ophawulekayo phakathi kolawulo nolawulo lovoti, ikhokelela kwimfazwe elandelayo yemithetho ye-i-imoveyidia. Imeko ebonakalisa indlela ephakamileyo yokuqhuba i-gcunt-eting Courage-sty (orreverse) kwisenzo solawulo lomthetho (or.)

IDobbs v.

Esi sigqibo sibalulekileyo sakutshanje sarhoxa Roe v. Wade kunye nesigqibo esibhalwe nguJaji Samuel Alito, sagqiba ukuba igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa lingabantu nabameli babo abanyuliweyo, hayi kubameli babo abanyuliweyo.

IJaji u-Atalito yaphikisa ngelithi ilungelo lokuqhomfa lalingasekelwanga nzulu kwimbali yesizwe okanye liqwalaselwe yingcamango yenkululeko yomyalelo. Ngokubuyisela umbuzo kumaphondo, iNkundla ngokunempumelelo yadlulisela uvavanyo lwemithetho yokuqhomfa ukusuka kwimithetho yejaji ukuya kwinkqubo yesizwe. [iii-Dobts] ngumzekelo obalulekileyo wokuthintela ukugwetywa kwetyala] inkundla yenkundla. Ngokukwanjalo iNkungaqiniseki ukunyaniswa kwemithetho esemthethweni ngaphambili. Ikwabonisa amandla okusebenza kwee-echeckings nemilinganiselo: iindlu zowiso-mthetho ngoku zinamandla okuvumela okanye ukuqhola, ngoxa ngoku ngokungqinelana umthetho-mthetho wezomthetho wesizwe okanye wokukhupha ukuqhotyosa (i-odromation). Isigqibo ngokwaso siphi ingxwexwexwexwex kumthetho, ingumstiptmentssssss, inguptment yeNupt.

Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Ngokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Izigqibo ezenziwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo zineziphumo ezifikelela kude kumthetho nasebutho labantu. Abasombululi nje kuphela iimpikiswano ezicacileyo zomthetho kodwa balungisa inkqubo kawonke-wonke kwaye baphembelela ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente. [[FLT: 0]] Marbury v. Madison[ [[FLT]] [2] ne [FLT] United States.[FFFFFFF:][FLT][FFFF:5]] ubeke imida ephezulu elawulayo, ngoxa [FLT] i-IN [FLT].[5]

Ngaphezu koko, izigqibo zeNkundla zingenza amanye amasebe enze. Emva Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, iKhombutho idlulise umthetho wamalungelo abantu ophawuliweyo. Emva Shelby County, iNdlu idlulise amalungelo amatsha okuvota (uJohn Lewigs Requence Act), nangona ingakhange ibe ngumthetho. Emva Ama-Dobs , amaninzi ashukushukulwa ukukhusela okanye ukuqhomfa, kunye neBhunga okususa isisu. Indlu eqwalalisa amalungelo okuqhola. I-ayidingle phakathi kwamasebe ayingqungquthanga; iyaguquka kunye nokuphendula okutsha okanye ukuphendula kolawulo.

Ngamanye amaxesha abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa amandla amakhulu ngokumisela imithetho yedemokhrasi. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ifanele ibe nengcwangu ekukhuseleni amalungelo, ingakumbi xa amanye amasebe engaphumeleli ukuthatha inyathelo. Bobabini baqonda ukuba indima yejaji ekuhlolweni nasekulinganiseni ibangela impikiswano engokwemvelo. Abalawuli babenenjongo yokuba ngendlela ngo-($a enamandla kodwa enyanzelisweyo esebenza ngaphakathi kwesiseko somgaqo-siseko. Imizekelo engasentla ibonisa ukuba izigqibo zeNkundla yezomthetho azisoloko zingumsebenzi wokugqibela; basoloko benyusa iimpendulo ezivela kwamanye amasebe, beqinisekisa incoko eqhubekayo ngemiqathangolawulo karhulumente.

Isiphelo

Amatyala acacileyo eNkundla Ephakamileyo asebenza njengemizekelo egxekayo yendlela esebenza ngayo i-United States. Ngokutolika umGaqo-siseko nangokuqinisekisa ukuba isebe ngalinye likarhulumente lisebenza phakathi kwemida yalo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza indima ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni umthetho nasekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye. [[[FLT:]] ukusukela ku-Mariory v. Madison[[[FLT:]] [[1]] kumsebenzi wobugqhinga [[FLT]] [uthelonke] [u-FLT]] kumntu ngamnye ofuna nayiphi nayiphi na indlela yokulwa nokluvo oluqhelekileyo. Ukuqonda ezi meko kuyimfuneko ukuba nabani na osoloko efuna ukugqweqwesayo. [[FF4], iNkukhangelwano oluphezulu]