ISisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Samalungelo KaHulumeni

Umqondo wamalungelo kahulumeni .avame ukubizwa ngokuthi amalungelo ezwe, qhamiswé ekuzameni kwe-America nombuso wezwe. Ngokungafani nesimiso sokuhlanganisa lapho wonke amandla esuka egunyeni elisenkabeni, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. uhlukanisa ubukhosi phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nohulumeni. Lokhu kuhlukana akuzenzakaleli; kwakuwukuhleba ngamabomu phakathi kwalabo ababefuna uhulumeni onamandla kanye nalabo ababesaba ukuthi uzakuphazamisa inkululeko yendawo. Ukuqonda ukuthi imibuso ithini ngempela ibambene nengamandla avinjelwe kanjani, futhi kubalulekile kangakanani ekuqondeni ukuthi lawo mandla asebenza kanjani ekulawuleni kwe-America.

Amalungelo oMbuso awawona nje amandla ombuso asele ngemva kokuba igunya likahulumeni lichaziwe. Amelela isigaba esihlukile sokubusa esiye savela ngombhalo womthetho-sisekelo, izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, izingxabano zezombangazwe, nomthetho wansuku zonke. Kusukela emfundweni yomphakathi kuya kumthetho wobugebengu, kusukela ekuhlolweni kwezobuchwepheshe kuya emithethweni yomshado, abusa igunya ezindabeni ezithinta ngokuqondile ukuphila kwezakhamuzi zabo zansuku zonke. Nokho imingcele yalelogunya iyaqhubeka incintisana, futhi ubuhlobo phakathi kombuso namandla ombuso buye bashintsha ngokuphawulekayo emakhulwini amabili eminyaka.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Namandla Agciniwe

Ilungiselelo elibaluleke kakhulu lomthetho-sisekelo lamalungelo ombuso yiSichibiyelo seshumi, esagunyazwa ngo-1791 njengengxenye yeBill of Rights. Sifundeka kanje: “Amagunya angaphathi i-United States ngoMthetho-sisekelo, noma angavunyelwe wona e-United States, agcinelwa e-United States ngokulandelana, noma kubantu.” Uma uqala ukuwabheka, lolulimi lubonakala lucacile: uhulumeni wezwe unawo lawo mandla anikezwa ngokuqondile nguMthetho-sisekelo, futhi yonke enye into ingeyamazwe noma abantu. Eqinisweni, i-ayisendement iphembele impikiswano engapheli ngenxa yokuthi amandla “athembekile” awabonakali kakhulu.

Ayini Amandla Agciniwe?

Amagunya agciniwe yilawo uMthetho-sisekelo ongawaniki uhulumeni kahulumeni futhi angaphiki imibuso. Ahlanganisa imisebenzi eminingi kahulumeni wezinsuku zonke: ukumisa ohulumeni bendawo, ukuqondisa ukhetho, ukuqondisa ezohwebo phakathi kwemingcele kahulumeni, ukugcina impilo yomphakathi nokuphepha, nokuphatha umthetho womkhaya, umthetho wempahla, kanye nesivumelwano somthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi sihlanganisa isimiso sikahulumeni olinganiselwe, kodwa futhi iye yakholelwa ukuthi ukubuyiselwa akusikhiqizi imingcele ekwakheni amandla kahulumeni wombuso, kodwa futhi ikholelwa ukuthi ukulawulwa akuyile ndawo ewumbuso wombuso wombuso, ithi umthetho wesizwe: wonke amandla anganikezwanganikezwangawo umthetho wesivumelwano.

Isibonelo esiyinhloko se- Ku [[FLT:] United States v. Darby [41], iNkantolo yasho ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi seSigqi se-“ kodwa izivumelwano ezigciniweyo zonke ezingayekwanga.” Kodwa [kusukela ku-[FLT:] ku-New York v. United States [[FLT]][FLT] [[FLT:]] i-Prompz. United States[FLT:] v [FLT:] [1997]], iNkantolo yasebenzisa ukushaya umthetho we-onke.

Imfundiso yamagunya ebekelwe isho ukuthi ingazama izimiso ezihluka kakhulu komunye nomunye. Lokhu kuhlukahluka kuvame ukuchazwa ngokuthi “amasu asebenzela ukubusa ngentando yeningi,” inkulumo ethandwa nguMahluleli uLouis Brandeis. Izwe lingazama izindlela ezintsha zokuxhasa imfundo, ukudluliswa kwezempilo, ukulungiswa komthetho wobugebengu, noma imithetho yendawo ezungezile ngaphandle kokufuna ukuvumelana kwesizwe. Uma ukuhlola kukahulumeni kuphumelela, ezinye izizwe − kanye nohulumeni wezwe.*. Uma izindleko zihluleka, izindleko zikhona kulelozwe.

Amandla Anamandla: Lokho Uhulumeni Wesifunda Ongakwenza

Ukuze siwaqonde ngokugcwele amalungelo kahulumeni, kudingekile ukuqonda lokho uhulumeni kahulumeni ophethe angakwenza. UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza iSishaya-mthetho uhlu olulinganiselwe lwemibuso ebaliwe eSigabeni I, i-Cate 8: ukuboleka intela, ukuboleka imali, ukulawula ezohwebo zamazwe angaphandle, ukukhokha imali, ukumisa amahhovisi eposi nezinkantolo, ukumemezela impi, ukuphakamisa nokusekela amabutho, nokwenza yonke imithetho ibe “efaneleke" ukukhipha lawo mibuso. Ngomlando waseMelika, lolu hlu lwachazwa ngokucutha, lushiya izikhundla zezindaba eziningi zezwe.

Nokho, i-New Deal yenze kwaba nokwanda okuphawulekayo kwegunya likahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqala ukuchaza iCommerce Claus kabanzi, ivumela ukuba ilawule cishe noma yimuphi umsebenzi wezentengiselwano ongase uthinte ezohwebo zezwe. Lokhu kwandisa kwanika uhulumeni wezwe isandla ezindaweni ezazisasele ngokwesiko, njengezindinganiso zemisebenzi, ezolimo, namalungelo omphakathi. Muva nje, iNkantolo ibeke imingcele ethile emandleni kahulumeni, njengakuwo wonke umsebenzi wezentengiselwano United States v v. Lopez (1995] [195]) kanye [FLT:] ne-United States.[FLT:]

Amandla Akhona: Lapho Umbuso Negunya Lombuso Liwela Khona

Akuwona wonke amagunya azimele noma angohulumeni kuphela. Amaningi avumelanayo, okusho ukuthi womabili amazinga kahulumeni angasebenza endaweni efanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, kokubili imibuso nohulumeni bangakhokha intela, izakhiwo zemvelo, ilawule ibhange, futhi abophe imigaqo yendawo ezungezile. Uma umbuso nemithetho elawulayo ingxabano, iSupremacy Claus (Artle VI, Clause 2) ishaya umthetho kahulumeni owenziwe ngaphakathi kwegunya lawo lomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko. Lesimiso se- sisebenza ngaphakathi kwegunya layo.

Izinhlobo Zokuhlengwa

  • Ukucindezelwa: UKhongolose usho ngokucacile ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ulawula umthetho kahulumeni endaweni ethile. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Musee Inforee Infied Security Act (ERIS) ilula ngokucacile imithetho kahulumeni ephathelene nezicwangciso zezisebenzi ezizuzisayo.
  • Icushwe ngesihlengo: Ngisho nangaphandle kolimi olucacile, umthetho kahulumeni ungahlenga umthetho wezwe uma laba ababili besempikiswaneni engaxazululeki noma uma icebo lokuqondisa likahulumeni libanzi kangangokuba alishiyi gumbi lokuthasiselwa umbuso. Lokhu ngokuvamile kubizwa ngokuthi “insimu.”
  • Intethelelo epheleleyo:[ Umthetho wezwe uhliswa uma wenza kungenzeki ukuvumelana nezimfuneko zombuso nombuso, noma uma ume njengesithiyo ezinjongweni ezigcwele nezinhloso zombuso.

Izwe futhi lisebenzisa amandla ahambisanayo ezindaweni ezifana nobulungisa bobugebengu. Ubugebengu obuningi buyicala likahulumeni; umthetho wombuso wobugebengu uhlanganisa kuphela ubugebengu obuthile obuphakathi kwezwe noma obusemthethweni kahulumeni. Kodwa ukubusa okuhlukile kuvamile(isenzo esisodwa sokushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ngokwesibonelo, kungaphula kokubili umthetho wombuso nowombuso, futhi bobabili ohulumeni bangaqunga icala.

Amaphoyisa: Igunya Likahulumeni Elibanzi Kunawo Wonke

Mhlawumbe umthombo obaluleke kakhulu wamandla kahulumeni yigunya elibizwa ngokuqondile . Lokhu akubhekiseli ekuqikelweni komthetho ngomqondo omncane; kunalokho, kubhekisele egunyeni elingokwemvelo likahulumeni ukuba lilawulele impilo, ukulondeka, ukuziphatha, nenhlalakahle yabantu balo. Amaphoyisa awaphathwa ngokuqondile eMthethweni kodwa aqashelwa njengegunya eligciniwe. Izwe lisebenzisa ukwakha imithetho, ifuna ukugoma, ukugunyaza, ukuphatha imvume, odokotela, ukuthengisa ngotshwala, ukumisa isilinganiso sejubane, nokunye ukudlula.

Ngenxa yokuthi amandla amaphoyisa mabanzi, izinkantolo zinikeza inkululeko ebanzi yokuwasebenzisa, kodwa ngaphandle kokuba zeqe izivikelo ezithile zomthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho wezwe ohlukanisayo ngokumelene nezentengiselwano zamazwe angaphandle noma ophula amalungelo ayisisekelo (njengenkululeko yokukhuluma noma ukusebenzisa inqubo yenkolo) uyobhekana nohloniphe. Kodwa izinga lesimiso sempilo yomphakathi kanye nezokuphepha zivame ukudlula uma zinesisekelo esiqinile.

Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVOID-19, amandla amaphoyisa ayesenkabeni yezimpi ezinkulu ezingokomthetho. Ababusi bezwe neminyango yezempilo bakhipha iziyalo zokuvala izifihla - buso, nezimfuneko zokugoma ngaphansi kwaleligunya. Eziningi zalezizenzo zabekelwa inselele enkantolo, nabamangaleli bephikisa ngokuthi babephula amalungelo omthetho noma babedlulele negunya lombuso. Ngokuvamile, izinkantolo zazisekela izinyathelo eziphuthumayo zempilo njengomthetho wokusebenzisa amandla amaphoyisa, nakuba eminye imingcele eqondile yancishwa lapho behlasela amaqembu athile ngaphandle kokulunga okufanele.

Imithetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Nendima Yayo

Umbuso ngamunye unomthetho-mthetho wawo siqu, osebenza njengomthetho ophakeme wezwe (ongaphansi komthetho kahulumeni). Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso ngokuvamile unikeza isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo abantu kunalowo Mthetho-sisekelo we-U.S.. Ngokwesibonelo, imithetho yombuso eminingi iqinisekisa ilungelo lokuba wedwa yimfihlo ngokuqondile, kanti ilungelo likahulumeni lokufihla izinto zomuntu siqu lithathwa ezinhlangothini eziningi. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingachaza imithetho yazo siqu ukuze zandise amalungelo angaphezulu kwesiteshisi sikahulumeni. Lokhu kwaziwa ngokuthi i-gastialism yokwahlulela entsha [.

Umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni uhlela futhi uhulumeni kahulumeni, ngokuvamile ngezindlela ezihluke kakhulu kumthetho kahulumeni. Amanye amazwe anombusi obuthakathaka nomphathi wendlu yomthetho onamandla; amanye anomphathi omkhulu lapho izikhulu ezinjengommeli jikelele nonobhala-zwe zikhethwa khona ngokuzimele. Izizwe eziningi zivumela ukubusa ngentando yeningi ngokuthatha izinyathelo eziqondile nangokukudlulisa, zinika abavoti amandla okumisa imithetho noma ukuguqula umthetho ngaphandle kokuhileleka kwemithetho. Lokhu kuye kwaba nethonya elikhulu ezindaweni ezifana nokubekwa kwensangube ngokomthetho, umthetho wentela, nemithetho yecala.

Ukulinganiselwa Kumandla Ombuso

Naphezu kwegunya elikhulu lombuso, kunemingcele ebalulekile. UMthetho-sisekelo wenqabela ngokuqondile ukwenza izinto ezithile: abanakungena ezivumelwaneni, imali, bakhubaze isibopho sezivumelwano, noma ukuthunyelwa kwentela noma ukuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe. ISichibiyelo seshumi nane, esigunyazwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango, senqabela ukuncishwa kwanoma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho, futhi ekunqabeni ukuvikelwa kwemithetho elinganayo. Lokhu kuye kwaba isisekelo sokumangalelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi amaningi ngokumelene nombuso kanye nohulumeni bendawo.

Eminye imingcele ivela ezimisweni zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, uMthetho we-Voing Rights ka-65 wenqabela ukuthatha inqubo yokuvota ecwasana ngesisekelo sohlanga. I-American ene-Creast Act idinga umbuso nohulumeni bendawo ukwenza izinhlelo zabo zitholakale. I-National Labor Relations Act ichitha imithetho eminingi yombuso elawula ukuhlelwa nokuthengiselana. Uma uhulumeni wezwe usebenza phakathi kwemibuso yawo, amazwe kumelwe avume.

Ukubusa kukaDillon kuphikisana nokuBusa Kwasekhaya

Umngcele ohlukile uthinta ohulumeni bendawo (izifunda, amabala, amadolobha). Ngaphansi Umthetho ka-Dillon , ohulumeni bendawo bayizidalwa zikahulumeni futhi banalawomandla kuphela agunyazwe ngokusobala yisishayamthetho sikahulumeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi amadolobha awanakwenza isenzo, ngisho nasezindabeni zendawo kuphela. Ngokungathi nje kuphela, ngaphandle kokuba umbuso ugunyazile. Amanye amazwe aye amukela ukubusa [ kwekhaya [ amalungiselelo emithetho-mthetho-mthetho ye-odomstion, inikeza ohulumeni bendawo i-I66. Kodwa ngisho nasezizweni zasekhaya, i-mthetho yezwe ingaqeda imithetho yendawo. Ukuxabana kwezwe nakuwokuwomda wamazwe nendawo yakhona kukhulu, ikakhulukazi ehlawulwayo, nemihosholo, kanye nemihosho.

Ukulwela Uhulumeni Ngezenzo: Izinhlangano Zanamuhla

Impikiswano ngamalungelo ombuso ayizona izinto zomlando ezingokomlando; zivela njalo kwezombangazwe zanamuhla. Izindaba eziningi eziphezulu zibonisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuchaza ukulinganisela okufanelekile kwamandla.

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho

Kusukela ngo-2012, inani elandayo lezifundazwe liye labhaliswa ngokomthetho ukuze lisetshenziswe kwezokwelapha noma ekuzijabuliseni, eliphikisana ngokuqondile nomthetho kahulumeni, obheka insangu njengento elawulwayo. Uhulumeni wezwe uye wenqaba kakhulu ukuphoqelela umthetho ngokwezimo ezigunyaziwe, kodwa ingcindezi ikhona. Amabhizinisi enkasangu kahulumeni awakwazi ukusebenzisa isimiso sokubhaka ebhange sikahulumeni, futhi izisebenzi kulawo mabhizinisi zingasabhekene nokuqulwa uhulumeni. Lo msebenzi uye waholela ekufuneni inguquko kahulumeni noma ukuqhubekela amazwe awo amandla okusebenzisa inqubo yezidakamizwa uma zibona kufanele.

Ukukhipha Isisu Namalungelo Okuzala

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [2022] ku- Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, eyagumbuqela Roe v. Wade, yabuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu ezizweni. Lokhu kuye kwaveza ukuhlukana okukhulu: amanye amazwe akhiphe ukuvinjelwa okungaphelele, kuyilapho amanye edlulise imithetho evikela ukufinyelela. Umphumela uyindawo engalingani kakhulu lapho ikhono lowesifazane lokukhipha isisu lixhomeke khona ekuphileni kwakhe. Izimemezelo eziningi ziye zazama ukulawula ukukhipha isisu lé kwemingcele yazo, njengokuvimbela ukuhamba kwesimiso senqubo. Imithetho engokomthetho enjalo i-mthetho eqinisekile i-orgogaddited.

Ukuqamba Amalungelo Nokuphathwa Kokhetho

UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza amandla okumisa “izikhathi, izindawo kanye nohlobo” lokhetho lwe-comnional, ngaphansi kokumiswa kwe-commilia. I-ovement ibilokhu isebenzisa ama-comstant, kodwa eminyakeni yamuva nje kuye kwavela ukwanda kwemithetho kahulumeni eshintsha izinqubo zokuvota nokuvota kwasekuqaleni nokuvota kwezinye izizwe, ukubeka imfuneko eziqinile zomvoti kanye nokubeka amabhokisi emithetho yokulahla amabhokisi kwezinye. Lemithetho iye yabekelwa ibekelwe inselele ngaphansi kwe-Voting Rights Act noMthetho-Constitution, ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo zishaye izinhlelo zokuthiwa kweqembu elinomthwalo omkhulu. Ukuqina phakathi kokulawula kwezwe nokuvota okulinganayo kulokhu kuyimpikiswano enkulu.

Ukulawula Izibhamu

ISichibiyelo Sesibili, njengoba ichazwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme i-Dialiologian of Columbia v. Heller [2008] kanye ne McDonald v. City of Chicago[ [2010], ivikela ilungelo lomuntu ngalinye lokugcina nokuphatha izinga lezikhali. Kodwa imibuso igcina igunya elibalulekile lokulawula izibhamu: zingadinga imvume, izikhali ezithile, iphoqelele inkathi yokulinda, futhi ibeke imingcele yokuphatha izindawo ezibucayi. Imithetho yoMbuso iyahluka kakhulu, kusukela “kukuthatha ukuyekelela nokubhalisa. Imithetho enjenge-Bradynpond Polivn Devition Actal Act, kodwa i-Biparn Act, i-Act, i-202222, iziphaka, kodwa iyaqhubeka, iMithelela phambili.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekunqandeni Amalungelo Ezwe

INkantolo Ephakeme ingumsizi oyinhloko wezimpikiswano ngokuhlukaniswa kwegunya. Phakathi namashumi eminyaka, izinqumo zayo ziye zanwetshwa ngokushintshashintsha futhi zagunyazwa uhulumeni. ERepublic yakuqala, iNkantolo ngaphansi kukaMahluleli Omkhulu uJohn Marshall yaqinisa amandla kahulumeni ngezindleko zezifundazwe ([]] Mcloch. Maryland[[FLT]]] [[FLT]]], [[FLT]] Gebbons v. Ogden[FLT]]). Ngemva kweMpi yamakhaya, iNkanto yavumela ukuba kukhululwe ngaphansi kwamandla amaphoyisa kodwa futhi kuvinjelwe izigebezo zokuvikela amalungelo zamakhaya [FT] [FLG] [125].[5] Izikhululo ezingeniswe yiNka iNkakhulu leNkakhulu lezelele, njengoba kushicilo olukhulu lezelele izikhulu zeze, kodwa kuvinye izikhulu zeze izikhulu zeze izikhulu zeze, futhi yaze, futhi yaze i - cishe yasindisa wonke

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, iNkantolo iye yabonisa isithakazelo esivuselelwe ekuvikeleni ubukhosi bukahulumeni. INkantolo iRehnquist ibuyisela uhulumeni (1990 kanye nasekuqaleni kuka-2000) yaveza izinqumo eziningana ezihlela ukubusa kukahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Commerce Claus neSiphendu se-Tenst. i-Roberts Court iye yaqhubeka nalokhu kuthambekela kwezinye izindawo (ngokwesibonelo), iphethe ukuthi amazwe awanakubekwa icala ngaphandle kwemvume yawo ngaphansi kwemithetho emelene nomthetho kahulumeni omelene nomthetho wombuso omelene nomthetho owe-acess, njengaleyo Affordable Care Act enegunya lomuntu ngamunye njengentela. Umphumela walezi zinqumo ngokuvamile uxhomeke ekwakhelweni lweNkakhulu kanye nasezicikweni zecala eziqondile.

Isiphetho: Ukulinganisela Okunamandla

Amalungelo oMbuso awahlali ekhona. Ayahlanganiswa njalo ngokubekwa kwemithetho, umthetho, nangezenzo zezombangazwe. ISichibiyelo seshumi sinikeza isiqalo, kodwa incazelo eqinisekile yamandla kahulumeni ixhomeke endleleni izinkantolo ezichaza ngayo igunya likahulumeni, indlela iziKhongolo ezisebenzisa ngayo amandla aso ahlelwe ngokwezigaba, nendlela izikhulu zikahulumeni eziqinisa ngayo amalungelo azo. Ukuqonda ukuthi lokhu kunamandla kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi i-United States ibuswa kanjani [1] kusukela ekilasini kuya eNkantolweni ePhakathi. Izindawo zokuhlola intando yeningi ziyaqhubeka zisebenza ngayo, nendlela yokuhlola kwazo ukuphila kwabantu bonke baseMelika.

[[[UMTH:0] Imithombo yemali ye-External yokufundwa okuqhubekayo:[[UMTL:1]