Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili sinjengesisekelo senqubo yobugebengu baseMelika, sivimbela uhulumeni ekubekeni umuntu emacaleni noma ezijezisweni zecala elifanayo. Nakuba isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo sesihlanu siqondeka kahle phakathi kwesimiso esisodwa, ukusebenza kwaso kuba yinkimbinkimbi ngokuphawulekayo lapho ukuziphatha okufanayo kuhlanganisa iziphathimandla ezibekwayo zikahulumeni, uhulumeni, kanye nobukhosi besizwe. Ukuqonda ukuthi izingozi eziphindwe kabili zisebenza kanjani kulezimiso ezihlukene zomthetho zidinga ukuhlolwa ngokucophelela kwemfundiso ehlukene yobukhosi, isikhundla esiyingqayizivele sezinkantolo zesizwe, kanye nomthetho owe-ovale ngokomthetho ochaza imingcele yalesivikelo esiyisisekelo. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlazikiswa okunegunya okuqinileyo okuphindiwe ngokukabili kwemithetho, ukukhanyiselwa abafundi abasemthethweni, ukukhazimuliswa kwabafundi, noma yimuphi umnqamlezi macala ongokomthetho womthetho wobugebengu.

Kuyini Ugibe Olukabili?

IRebible Jeopardy Claus yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. iyanikeza: “Akekho umuntu... oyoba necala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini ephindwe kabili yokuphila noma isitho.” Lesivikelo sisebenza ekumangalelweni kwezwe ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, siqinisekisa ukuthi akekho ongase aphinde aqulwe icala elifanayo ngemva kokuba umuntu elahliwe, ebekwe icala elifanayo, noma ajeziswe ngokungaphezulu komthetho ofanayo owenziwe ngaphansi kwegunya elifanayo. Isinqumo sivimbela ukucindezelwa kukahulumeni ngokuphindaphindwayo, sivimbela ukucindezelwa ngomthetho owenziwe ngomthetho.

Umbuzo oyinhloko ophakamayo emongweni wemithetho eminingi owenamelwayo ukuthi “icala elifanayo” lisebenza kubabusi abahlukene. Ngaphansi kwemfundiso yobukhosi , izinhlangano ezimbili ezizimele ezihlukene] (ezinemithetho yobugebengu ezimele kanye nezithakazelo) cishe ngayinye ingamangalela umuntu oyedwa ngokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Lesimiso, esisekelwe emqondweni wokuthi umbusi ngamunye umisa imithetho yakhe siqu, siye savunyelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe yiNkantolo Ephakeme futhi sakha uhlelo lwezinzelo lokuhlola uhulumeni, umbuso, isifunda, nezokuxhumana kwesizwe.

Imfundiso Yobukhosi Obubodwa: Ohulumeni Abaphethe Nohulumeni

Imfundiso yokubusa embaxambili isekela ukuthi uhulumeni wombuso nombuso ngamunye uzimele. Ngenxa yalokho, isenzo esisodwa singaphula kokubili umthetho kahulumeni nombuso, futhi ukubusa ngakunye kungamangalelwa ngokuzimele. Icala eliphawulayo elimisa lomthetho enkathini yanamuhla lingu United States v. Lanza, 260 U.S. 377 (1922), lapho iNkantolo isekela ukuthi ukuvinjelwa okulandelanayo kweziphathimandla zesizwe nohulumeni besenzo esifanayo akungqubuzani nemithetho ephindaphindiwe yecala lika-Ropy Jeophy Clausleastee ngoba ohulumeni ababili bahlukene namandla abo ahlukene emithonjeni ehlukene.

Lesimiso saphinde saqinisekiswa Heath v. Alabama, 474 U.S. 82 [1985], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yasho ngokucacile ukuthi imfundiso ehlangene “akuwona umthetho wobuchwepheshe kodwa ingumqondo oyisisekelo wobuhulumeni.” Ngaphansi kwalesimiso, umuntu ophuca ibhange elikhokhwayo ubugebengu obusemthethweni (ukuphanga) nobugebengu bezwe (kwesokuqala). Uma uhulumeni umangalela kuqala futhi uthola isigwebo, uhulumeni wezwe ungaqhubeka umangalela ukuphanga okufanayo ngaphandle kokuphatha ingozi ephindwe kabili. Uhulumeni usebenza okufanayo uma uhulumeni uhamba kuqala.

Nakuba lemfundiso isagxilile, iye yagxekwa futhi yakhishwa ngaphandle. Ngokwesibonelo, “ukuqulwa kwecala” kungavimbela ukuqulwa kwecala kwesibili uma ukumangalelwa kombusi wokuqala kumane kuyisembozo senkosi yesibili. Nokho, iNkantolo ayivamile ukusebenzisa lokhu kuhlukana, futhi imfundiso yobukhosi obumbaxambili ilokhu iwukuhlangana okungahleliwe okubusayo okubusa umbuso wezwe.

Izinkinga Ezingokoqobo Zobukhosi Obusesifundazweni

Kudokotela, lokhu kusho ukuthi ikhasimende elikhululiwe enkantolo yombuso lingase libhekane namacala kahulumeni abangelwa izenzakalo ezifanayo eziyisisekelo. Izibonelo eziqanjiwe zihlanganisa amacala amalungelo omphakathi lapho ukuquliswa kwamacala kukahulumeni kuphumela ekumangalelweni, kodwa iziphathimandla zikahulumeni kamuva ziletha amacala ngaphansi komthetho ozondelwa ubugebengu noma imithetho yamalungelo omphakathi. Ngokufanayo, ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, amacala ezikhali, kanye nokukhwabanisa ngokuvamile kubangela ukuphenywa okufanayo kokubili izinhlangano zikahulumeni nohulumeni.

Umphumela obalulekile ukusetshenziswa okungokomthetho kwenkantolo kahulumeni “ukuyeka” lapho imiphumela kahulumeni ingagculisi. Abashushisi abaphethe isifundazwe bangase bathathe indiva ecaleni likahulumeni kodwa bangenele uma icala likahulumeni liphela ngokulahlwa noma ngesigwebo esilula. Lokhu kubangele ukukhathazeka ngokuphambana kwabashushisi nangokuwohloka kokuphela kwecala, nakuba iNkantolo iye yasekela imfundiso njengengxenye edingekile yombuso.

Izinkantolo Zesizwe: Icala Elikhethekile Lobukhosi Obuhlukile

Ukusebenzelana phakathi kwezinkantolo zesizwe nezinye izikhundla kuletha ubunkimbinkimbi obungaphezulu. Amazwe esizwe aqashelwa njengamazwe ancike kuhulumeni [[FLT: 0] anezikhundla ezifuzelwe njengefa − ukuma okuye kwashintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngemithetho kahulumeni nemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme. Ukuze kube nezinjongo eziphindwe kabili, impikiswano eyinhloko iwukuthi izinkantolo zesizwe ziphathwa “njengamakhosi ahlukene” kohulumeni nohulumeni, noma ukuthi ziyizikhali zikahulumeni wombuso.

Ngokomlando, iNkantolo Ephakeme yabanjwa ku-United States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313 (188), ukuthi isizwe nohulumeni bazimele ngokwahlukene. Weelr, indoda engumNavajo enxusayo enecala lokuziphatha okungahleleki kwesizwe futhi kamuva yabekwa icala lokudlwengula okungokomthetho okusekelwe ekuziphatheni okufanayo. INkakhulu yanquma ukuthi ukumangalelwa kwesizwe akusibophi ngenxa yokuthi isizwe satholanga ubukhosi baso obusebukhosini besizwe, hhayi ezithubeni zombuso wesizwe. Lokhu kumiswa ngenxa yezinkantolo zesizwe ezihlukene ngezinjongo ezimbili.

Nokho, intuthuko elandelayo iwenze lukhuni lo hlelo. uMthetho womthetho nomthetho we-Order ka-2010 kanye nobudlova obumelene nabesifazane Bobuphostolicition Act ka-2013 buthuthukisa ukubusa kwesizwe ngamalungu angewona amalungu esizwe ezimweni ezithile, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yobudlova basekhaya nokuphathwa kobudlova emazweni ahlukene. Lemithetho iye yaphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi izikhalo zezizwe zamalungu angewona amalungu ahlukene kufanele ziphathweswe njengomthetho noma ukuqulwa kwemithetho yesizwe. [[FLT:] ku-[FLT] ku-United States. [FLT] V, 579, U.U-20666], iNkathi yeNkakhulu yesizwe i-onke izikhulu zesizwe, izikhulu zesizwe, futhi izikhulu zemithetho eziqinile ngenxa yemithetho yezizwe eziqinile, lapho kuvusekulwa izinyuko, lapho kuvuse izinyukile futhi kunezi kwezimo

Umphumela we [[QL:0] United States v. Lara

Enye yezindaba ezibaluleke kakhulu eziphathelene nobukhosi besizwe kanye nezingozi eziphindwe kabili yi-[FLT] United States v.Lara, 541 U.S. 193 (2004). ] ULara, ummangalelwa wayeyilungu leLake Siok ne-U.S. isakhamuzi. Wamangalelwa yisizwe ngenxa yokuhlasela isikhulu sikahulumeni futhi kamuva wabekwa umthetho kahulumeni ngenxa yenkambo efanayo. INkantolo Ephakeme yayithi ukuvinjelwa impoqo ngenxa yokuthi uhulumeni nemibuso yesizwe yayihlukene. INkanto egcizelela ukuthi i-Congress ingachaza ubukhulu besizwe ngombuso wesizwe, futhi kamuva izikhulu zesizwe zisebenzisa igunya elizimele.

Isinqumo .LA siqokomisa umehluko obucayi: nakuba ohulumeni bamazwe nohulumeni behlukene ngokulinganayo, isimo sezinkantolo zesizwe singahluka kuye ngokuthi ummangalelwa uyilungu lesizwe yini nasemagunyeni athile omthetho adlalayo. Kubantu abamangalelwayo abangewona amalungu, ukucusumbula kobukhosi kuba yisikhawulo esiqinile. Ezinye izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zabuza ukuthi ukumangalelwa kwezizwe ezingamalungu angekho ngaphansi kwemithetho ehleliwe kufanele kubekwe kuhulumeni wezwe, kungenisa izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Njengamanje, umbono ovamile ukuthi izinkantolo zesizwe zihlala zihlukene ngezinjongo eziphindiwe, kodwa umthetho awuzigcini ngokuphelele.

Icala Eliphawulekayo Nezenzakalo Ezingokomthetho

Ngalé ULanza, u-Heath, kanye u-Lara[, ezinye izigameko eziningi ziveza ukusebenza kwengozi eziphindwe kabili phakathi kwemingcele. Ukuqonda lezizimo kunikeza umfanekiso ocaze kakhulu wendawo engokomthetho.

Ggush v. United States[ (2029)

Imposiso-v. United States, 587 _U-U.S._209, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa ngokunembile imfundiso ehlangene yobukhosi enkantolo lapho ummangalelwa eboshelwe icala lensangu enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphambili ayeboshelwe icala ngezwe lase-Alabama ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo. Inkantolo yalahla ukuthi lemfundiso kufanele ibekwe inqatshwe, iphethe ukuthi umbhalo weJeopardy Claus nomqondo wokuqala uvumela amakhosi ahlukene ukuba ajezise ngokuhlukana isenzo esifanayo. Umthetho u-Alto, ubhale ngesibalo se 7-2, wagcizelela ukuthi “abantu ngabanye abavikeli ababekwa kabili engozini ngenxa yesimo esifanayo, futhi isho ukuthi incazelo ebanzi yecala eliyenziwa ngaphansi komthetho ohlukile isho ukuthi omunye umthetho owehlukile umthetho owehlukile.[3] [F]

Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle (2016)

Umehluko obalulekile uhlanganisa ababusi bezwe. ePuerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle, 579 U.S. 59 (2016), iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yasekela ukuthi iPuerto Rico nohulumeni abazohlukaniswa ngenxa yezinjongo eziyingozi ezimbili ngenxa yokuthi igunya lePuerto Rico lithathwe emthonjeni owodwa kazwelonke (U.S. Constitution neKhossion-rather kusuka emthonjeni ozimele wobukhosi. Lokhu kugcizelela ukuthi ubukhosi obuhlangene bemfundiso ehlangene abusekelwe ekutheni yini amandla ayo atholakala entweni ezimele, engekho emthonjeni wesizwe. Ukuhlola izinkantolo zesizwe kuhlukile ngenxa yokuthi isigaba esikhona ngaphambi kokuba ubukhosi.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Nezihlukile

Ukuqonda lezi zimiso kubalulekile kubameli bezigebengu, abashushisi nababahluleli abasingatha amacala ngezindlela eziningi.

  • Ukumangalela [: Iziphathimandla ze-Federal zingalinda icala likahulumeni ukuze liphethwe ngaphambi kokufaka amacala, ukusebenzisa ubukhosi obubili ukuze uthole isigwebo esiqinile.
  • Plea kuthengiselana: Ummangalelwa angabhekana nokucindezela kokugomela icala kwelinye izwe ukuze agweme ukuquliswa icala kwelinye. Ama-Attorney kumelwe acelele amakhasimende ngengozi yokuqunjelwa izikhalo ezimbili lapho exoxa.
  • [I-CParaoriral estoppel: Nakuba ingozi ephindwe kabili ingaba yisithiyo sokushushisa kokwesibili, i-preclusion [] (i-collational ebromable) ingasebenza ngapha nangapha kwezindawo zokulawula. Uma impikiswano esobala inqunyiwe ekuzameni kokuqala (umzk. ummangalelwa akasifaki isenzo), ukuze athole isibopho ngaphansi komthetho wesibili omisiwe [[FLT:]'slot [av[FLT]]. Slower[FLT], 39670.[4], kodwa, ukuvala i-egconflective i-emplective kuvame kakhulu.
  • Izinselele ze-juristional: Enkantolo yesizwe, ummangalelwa angase aphikise ngokuthi isizwe asinalo igunya phezu kwamalungu angaphandle noma ukuthi ukushushisa kuyisinyathelo sokususa izingozi eziphindwe kabili zikahulumeni, okubangela ukuvikelwa kabili. Izinselele ezinjalo zidinga ukuhlaziywa ngokucophelela kwegunya lomthetho kanye nesikhundla samalungu esizwe.

Kukhona futhi okulinganiselwe lapho umshushisi wesibili evinjelwa ngisho naphakathi kwababusi abahlukene:

  • umbango : Uma ukushushisa kokuqala kwakuyithuluzi lesibili, okwesibili kunganqanyulwa. Lokhu kuthathelwa ngaphandle kuqashelwe kuyidikshina kodwa akuvamile ukusetshenziswa.
  • Ukuziphatha komthetho [: Uma umshushisi wesibili eletha ukholo olubi noma ukuhlukumeza ummangalelwa, inqubo efanele ingakuvimbela, nakuba lena kungeyona impikiswano eyingozi kabili ku-se.
  • umfundisi wesigungu sokulawula : Eminye imithetho kahulumeni, njenge- ngokomthetho wepethithe [ (Inkambiso yesimiso sobulungisa ngaphakathi), inqabela ukuqulwa kwecala ngemva kokuqulwa kwecala likahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba kuhlangatshelwe izimo ezithile. Inkambiso yePetrate ayibopheki ngokomthetho kodwa iyisiqondiso esifuna imvume kuMsizi we-Attorney General phambi kokuba iqale ukuqulwa ngecala.

Indima Yomthetho Wezizwe Zonke Nokumangalela Kwakwamanye Amazwe

Nakuba zingevamile, izimpikiswano zezingozi eziphindwe kabili zikhona futhi emongweni wobuchushi bakwamanye amazwe. I-United States ngokuvamile ayikuqapheli ukukholeka kwezindaba zangaphandle noma ukulahlwa njengokuvimbela ukuquliswa kwamacala kwasekhaya ngaphansi kwemfundiso ehlukene, njengoba izibonda zomhlaba wonke zihlukene. Nokho, ezinye izivumelwano nezivumelwano ezingaphezulu zihlanganisa “izingozi ezikuyi-intengiselwano eziphindwe kabili) ezingase zivale ukuhlushwa ngemva kokuvinjelwa kwezwe langaphandle ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo. Isibonelo, i-Convention Ihlule iSchengement Reconvement nezivumelwano ezithile ze-bitebrary zinikeza isivikelo esiphindwe kabili ezizweni ezisayina izimpawu. E-U. E-S., ukungakho kwamacala angokomthetho awenziwa kwamanye amazwe kusho ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kwezwe akuvunyelwe umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho akuvinjeni.

Ukuthola Izimo Eziyinkimbinkimbi: Imikhuba Emihle Kakhulu Yochwepheshe Bezomthetho

Uma becabangela incazelo ecacile nengaxazululeki yezingozi eziningi eziyingozi, odokotela kufanele basebenzise lezi zindlela ezilandelayo:

  • isibonakaliso sokuqala [: Phakathi nendaba efakwayo, nquma ukuthi ukuziphatha kungaphula uhulumeni, umbuso, noma umthetho wesizwe.
  • Ukubhalwa kwemininingwane yangaphambili: Thola amakhophi afakazelwe ezahlulelo, amarekhodi, neziqondiso zejaji kunoma iliphi icala langaphambili. La maphepha abalulekile ekunyuseni amaphutha aphindwe kabili noma ukuvimbela ukugcinwa.
  • Ukuhlanganisa nochwepheshe: Emacaleni ahilela izinkantolo zesizwe, thinta ummeli ofaka umthetho wesizwe noma wezwe lamaNdiya ukuze uhlole imingcele.
  • Izingxoxo zokunxusa [: Lapho ikhasimende libhekene nokumangalelwa okungaphindwa kabili, cabangela ukuxoxa ngesinqumo sembulunga yonke esihlanganisa zonke izikhalo ezingase zibekwe kuzo zonke izifunda. Izivumelwano ezinjalo azivamile kodwa kungenzeka uma abashushisi behlela.
  • Intuthuko yemithetho elawulayo: Izikhokhi ziyaqhubeka zicwengisisa izinga lombuso wobugebengu besizwe. Izindleko zamuva zihlongoze ukunyuswa kwegunya lesizwe phezu kwamalungu angewona, okungashintsha ukuhlaziywa kabili kwezingozi. Hlala waziswe ngemithombo enjenge i-National Conference of State Legislatures[ kanye ne-[FLT] Isabelo seHofisi yokwahlulela ye-Thibelty [[FLT]]

Isiphetho

Ingozi ephindwe kabili emongweni wohulumeni, wezwe, newobuzwe ibonisa isimo esiyinkimbinkimbi sobukhosi baseMelika. Imfundiso ehlangene yokubusa ivumela ukuqulwa kwezinkantolo ezihlukene ngokulandelana, kodwa ukusebenza kwayo ezinkantolo zesizwe kuqondiswa isimo esiyingqayizivele samazwe esizwe njengazimele, angaphambi kwe-constitution. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yayisekela njalo imfundiso, futhi iye yaqaphela ukuthi akuyona yonke izinhlangano ezizimele ezizimele. Ukusetshenziswa kwazo ezimeleni zomthetho wesizwe, kushukunyiswa umthetho wesizwe nomthetho we-consition, kusho ukuthi abasebenzi kumelwe bahlale beqaphile. Ngokuqonda izisekelo ezingokomthetho, izimpawu, futhi izinhlelo ezisebenzayo ezingokomthetho ezihlelwe lapha lapha, zingakhipha izilinganiso ezihlukene nezingazezezehlakalo ezingcono neziwusizo. [F3] [F3][4]