Ikusasa LoMbusi Wezwe Liyohlangana Ngokukhanyiselwa Izinqumo ZeNkantolo Ephakeme Yamuva

Imfundiso yokuvikeleka kombuso ekugonyelweni kwesimiso sobukhosi iye yavikela kuhulumeni enkantolo engokomthetho ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye namakhulu amaningi omthetho ovamile, lesimiso silinganisela isithunzi nokuzimela kohulumeni nohulumeni ngokumelene nesidingo sokulandisa komuntu ngamunye. Imithetho yeNkantolo yamuva ePhakeme kakhulu, nokho, iye yavivinya imingcele yokuvikeleka ubukhosi ezindaweni ezisukela ebukhosini besizwe kuya enkululekoni engokwenkolo nasebusweni obusemkhandlwini. Njengoba iNkantolo iqhubeka ilungisa indlela yayo yokuphatha, imibuzo ngezinga layo lemfundiso, izisekelo zayo zomthetho-sisekelo, nezicikelo zayo zesikhathi esizayo zisezingenisezingeni eliphezulu kujusipala yaseMelika.

Ukuzivikela kombuso akukona okuphelele; iziKhongolo zingayivimbela ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile, futhi imibuso ingavuma ngokuzithandela ukuvumelana nayo. Nokho izinqumo zeNkantolo eminyakeni engamashumi amathathu edlule ziye zaqinisa imingcele ekuhlonishweni futhi zacaciswa lapho ukuvikeleka kusebenza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni. Ukuqonda lezizenzakalo kudinga ukuhlola izimpande ezingokomlando, amacala ayinhloko anamuhla, nezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezikhona eziyothinta lemfundiso eminyakeni ezayo.

Isizinda Sombuso OnguMbusi

Isimiso sokuthi umbusi akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe sibuyele emuva kumthetho wesiNgisi futhi sathathwa amakoloni aseMelika. Ngemva kokuhlaziywa koMthetho-sisekelo, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme iChjolm v. Georgia ivumela izakhamuzi ezizimele ukuba zidlulise icala lamazwe enkantolo engokomthetho, ziqhube ukudluliswa okusheshayo kweSimemezelo se-Andesi-11 ngo-1795. ISichithi seNkathi seNkanto Ephakeme seNkantolo Ephakeme singedluliselwe kunoma yisiphi isambatho somthetho noma i-egconst, qala noma i-athonsiwe ngokomthetho ye-United States emele i-Atmonds of United State, noma i-Oriverserces of Conservent of the Lownverserst Triverse.”

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo yandisa ukufinyelela kweSichibiyelo ngaphezu kombhalo waso ongokoqobo. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkantolo yathi izikhulu zikahulumeni azivikelekile kumasuntswana ezakhamuzi zazo, icabanga ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nenye siqinisekisa isimiso somthetho-mthetho sokuzivikela kombuso sobusomhlalaphansi. Le simiso sokuzivikela sinweba enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yencithakalo, i-intengiza, futhi ngisho nezindlela ezithile zokuphatha, ngaphandle kokuba imvume kahulumeni noma i-Hulumendre iphinde ikhiphe amandla ayo okulawula ngaphansi kweSigaxa 5 seSigqi se-Gci se-Galement.

Nokho, ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela sombuso akusona isihlangu sengubo yokuzivikela. Inkantolo iye yaqaphela ukuthi amacala esuti alethwa yi-United States, izenzo ezimelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni zokukhululeka okulindelekile ngaphansi Ex pate Young, futhi izenzakalo lapho isosha elivimbela ukuvinjelwa kwezwe liqhubeka khona. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amazwe awagonyelwa amasudi ezinkantolo lapho umthetho wesizwe unikeza ikhambiza. Lezizici zidala indawo eyinkimbinkimbi iNkanto eqhubeka ihamba.

Izenzakalo Ezingokomlando NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Sokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Izindaba zokuqala ezifana Isizwe se-Certokee v. Georgia (131]) (1831) yafanekisa ukudlala phakathi kobukhosi besizwe nokuzivikela kombuso. INkantolo yathi iCherokee Nation yayingesona “isimo esingaphandle” ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III futhi ngenxa yalokho yayingenakugwema Georgia ngokuqondile eNkantolo Ephakeme. Nakuba lesi sinqumo singachazanga ngokuqondile ukuvikelwa kwesimiso sobukhosi, saqaphela ukuthi zombili izizwe namalungelo azimele alinganisela amandla ombuso phezu kwazo. Kamuva, Ingxenye eYethu ye-[FLT] futhi ngenxa yalokho ayinakukwazi ukugwema ngokuqondile eSigodwini esingaphezulu seNkampathi Esikhulu. (1910) iNkakhulu leNkathiwe isikhulu singashosho ukuthi izikhulu ziqhubeke ukuphulwa komthetho womthetho wombuso, uma isithiyo singenakalikalikali sethuluzi esibalulekile.[Focttimetime.

Inkathi yanamuhla yokugonyelwa kombuso ngokusemthethweni yaqala ngezimiso zeSikole sombuso & i Hospital v. Halderman (19984), eyayithi iSiphakamiso seMiphetho seshumi Nenye seSiphakamiso sikahulumeni sivimbela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zivumelane nomthetho kazwelonke. INkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi izimiso zikahulumeni zidinga inhlonipho ngobukhosi bukahulumeni, ngisho noma umthetho wezwe unganikeza isisekelo sokukhululeka. Lesinqumo sagcizelela umqondo wokuthi isivikelo sombuso asisona nje isivikelo sesimiso somthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kodwa siyisivikelo esingaphansi kwe-mthetho-mthetho.

Izinqumo Zamuva ZeNkantolo Ephakeme Zilahla Ubunye BoMbusi

Emashumini amathathu eminyaka adlule, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha uchungechunge lwezinqumo eziphawuliwe eziye zacacisa futhi zalinganisela izinga lokuzivikela kombuso. Lezizinqumo zibonisa iNkantolo ehlukene, ngokuvamile enezahlulelo ezithatha indinganiso eziqinile ezisekela ukuvikeleka okukhulu kanye nobulungisa obukhululekile obusekela ukulandisa okukhulu. Amacala alandelayo abaluleke kakhulu.

Seminole Friest of Florida v. Florida (1996)

Isinqumo sanamuhla esinemiphumela emikhulu kakhulu sokuvikela ubukhosi singu SAMINOLE FORN of Florida v. Florida, 517 U.S.1996). Esinqumweni esingu-5-4 esimisiwe, iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iNkantolo ayinakukwazi ukumelana nesimiso sombuso sokuvikela ubukhosi ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I, njengoMnyango wezentengiselwano uCelasko. Icala lavela ku-Indiya Gaming Reguration Act, eyanika izizwe ilungelo lokuqhuba ama-gass ngokomthetho okholo oluhle. INkantolo yenze iSibonelo secala eside ngaphansi kwesivumelwano somthetho we-Genethiwenkathi. [FLT] I-Genev Union. [FT] [FT] [9] [9], ivumela i-Claydiogconsomest provicess (encerst provicess]) ngaphansi kweSigconst

Isinqumo sabangela ukuncishiswa kwemithetho ye-FOLT[[FLT: 1] ngokuphumelelayo ukuqeda ikhono loMkhandlu lokubeka iziphakamiso eziyimfihlo ngokuzijezisa ngemithetho eminingi kahulumeni, kuhlanganise naleyo ephathelene nokuwa kwamandla emali, impahla, nentengiselwano yesifunda. Isinqumo sakhuthaza ukuncishiswa kwemithetho ngokuthi izifunda zingayekwa yini ngenxa yokwephula imithetho kazwelo. Ngokulandelayo izimo, njenge- College Monist Bank v. Florida Prefeltive Educations Office Butry Board [ (1999) futhi [FLT] ne[FLD] Frecdateast Reducation Relications But Burders.vlands [FFod Burdeckalk] [1999], ukucubulisa i-eqedkthelelanisa i-evotion, ukuphatha okusemthethweni kwe-promotimoti ye-Pronsotion,

Alden v. Maine (1999)

Ku i-Maine, 527 U.S. 706 (1999), iNkantolo yakhuluma ngokuthi isosha lokuzivikela kombuso liyasebenza yini enkantolo yombuso. Izikhulu zezikhulu, izikhulu zezeluleko, zamangalela umbuso weMaine ezinkantolo zawo siqu ngokukhokha izindleko zesilinganiso eseqile ngaphansi kwe-Fair Labor Standard Act. INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi iso sokuzivikela okujatshulelwa yimibuso enkantolo yezwe, okungenani uma isuti lisekelwe enkantolo yomthetho kahulumeni. Izikhulu zacabanga ukuthi “izintambo ezingokwezimo ezingathi zisemthethweni zomthetho wethu" zihlanganisa ubukhosi, nokuthi i-A11th Amegementry ayiyona kuphela inzuzo yokulondoloza ukuvikela imibuso ebusayo.

UMahluleli uSouter waphikisa, ephikisa ngokuthi ukucabanga kwabaningi kwakunephutha ngokomlando nokuthi ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela kobuso bezwe kwakuhloselwe ukuvikela imibuso esuswe esubeni esekelwe emthethweni kahulumeni. Ukuphikisa kwaqokomisa ukungezwani phakathi kwezimiso ze-constation nezimiso zokuphoqelelwa kwamalungelo enkantolo. Naphezu kokugxekwa, Alden iyisisekelo semfundiso yanamuhla yokuzivikela.

Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority (2002)

INkantolo yandisa ukuvikeleka kobukhosi ezicini ezithile zokuphatha iFederal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority, 535 U.S.743 (2002), i-Federal Maritime Commission yamisa ukugqunywa kwe-Provice ngokumelene ne-South Carolina Ports Authority ngemva kokuba inkampani yangasese ikhononde ukucwasa ngokukhuphula izikhungo zokumisa. Inkantolo yathi izimiso zezeluleko lweshumi Nenyele yesithunzi ne-Hulumendment zivela ezinhlangano zezomthetho, ngisho nalapho inqulumo ingekho isibopho somphakathi. Isinqumo savimba izigidipitile izinhlangano zomphakathi ekufuneni usizo eziphethe izinqubo zezezwe, ngaphandle kokuba umbuso uvumene. Le komiti yandisa izivumelwano ngenxa yemithetho yokuzibo.

Filton v. iDolobha lasePhiladelphia (2021)

Nakuba i-Flulton v. City of Philadelphia, 593 U.S_ (2021), isebenzelana kakhulu nenkululeko engokwenkolo ngaphansi kweSiphendulo Sokuqala, incazelo yayo yokuvikela ubukhosi ibalulekile. Icala lavela esinqumweni seFiladelphia sokuyeka ukubhekisa abantwana kumaNkonzo e-Katolika (CSS) ngenxa yokunakekela ngenxa yokuthi i-CSS yenqaba ukumisa imibhangqwana efanayo yezeluleko ezinkolelweni ezingokwenkolo. Idolobha alizange liphakamise isivikelo esiqinile sokuvikela iCSS ngokumelene ne-Free Execconicracle. [indlela elandelwayo] Isinqumo seNkakhulu yeze-C.[3] Nokho, ukunquma kweNkadensi yeNkadelela inguquko yezenkolo eqinile ekusebenziseni inseni inseni inse inseleleni inse inseleleni:[3]

Ngaphezu kwalokho, uveza ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zivumela amasudi amelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba agunyazwe ngokusekelwe ekuphukeni komthetho-mthetho, ngisho noma uhulumeni ngokwawo uhlala uvikelekile ekulimaleni. Icala ligcizelela ukuthi ukuvikela uhulumeni akusona isithiyo sokugcinwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthethweni ngasese; ngokuyinhloko kuvala izithiyo ezilimaza izenzo nesuti endaweni lapho uhulumeni uyingxenye yangempela yesithakazelo.

Izindaba Eziyinhloko Nezici Zazo Ezibanzi

Umphumela oqhubekayo walezi zinqumo uye waba ukuqinisa ukuvikeleka kombuso ezikhungweni zikahulumeni nesifundazwe kuyilapho uKhalarkhela ukwakhiwa kwebhungane. Ngezansi kufushaniswa amacala athinteka kakhulu nokuthi asho ukuthini ezimweni ezihlukahlukene ezingokomthetho.

  • Isizwe seCheroke v. Georgia (1831): imisiwe ukuthi izizwe azizona ‘ izigaba ezihlukene” zezinjongo zeSiphakamiso III, ziqaphela ngokuphelele ukuthi amazwe nezizwe zihlanganyela ukuzivikela okuzimele esuthwini. Lokhu kusemqoka ezimpikiswaneni zanamuhla zesizwe ngogebengo, imithombo yemvelo, kanye nombuso.
  • USITINOLE FURY of Florida v. Florida (1996]] waqaphela ukuthi uKhongolo lungeke lukwazi ukuvikela uhulumeni ngokusemthethweni ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I. Lemigoqo yokuzilimaza ezindaweni ngaphansi kwemithetho enjenge-Fair Labor Standard Act, amaMelika anekhubaza elikhubazekayo (AAIsihloko I), kanye nobandlululo lweNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi, ngaphandle kokuba iSishaya - mthetho sisebenze ngengxenye 5 ye-INguqulo ye-INguqulo ye-48.
  • Alden v. Maine (1999): ukuvikeleka okwandayo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuze kufunwe izikhangiso zikahulumeni. Ngenxa yalokho, izisebenzi zikahulumeni azikwazi ukumangalela umqashi wazo ngenxa yokuphulwa kweholo likahulumeni nehora kunoma iyiphi inkantolo ngaphandle kokuba imvume kahulumeni noma iSishaya-Hulumeni ngokufanelekile i-bro facells kusuka eqenjini le-5 lomthetho.
  • FEderal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority[2002] (2002]]:] ukuvikelwa okungaphezulu kombuso kuhulumeni olawulayo. Amaqembu awakwazi ukusebenzisa amacebo okulawula ukuphoqelela ukuba aphethe ngemithetho kahulumeni; kumelwe athembele ekuphoqeleleni izenzo zomthetho zikahulumeni ngokwawo.
  • Fulton v. City of Philadelphia [202] [202]: Nakuba kungesona isinqumo esiqondile sokuvikela imfuno, yaqinisa [ imfundiso ye-Exte Young[ yemvume yokukhululeka engokomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Amazwe angefakeli ukuvinjelwa ukuba avimbele izikhulu ukuba zifake igwegwe emalungeni omthetho womthetho omthetho omthetho.

Lezi zimo zizonke zakha uhlaka lapho amazwe ejabulela khona ukuzivikela okubanzi ekumangalelweni ngasese, kodwa ngaphandle okuphawulekayo kosizo namasudi okulindelekile okulethwa uhulumeni. Imithwalo manje isinda kakhulu kumapesenti azimele afuna ukuphoqelela amalungelo ombuso kahulumeni ngokumelene nemibuso, ngokuvamile efuna ukuba abonise ukuthi uMkhandlu wawuhloselwe ukuvikela izikhali futhi wakwenza lokho ngaphansi kwegunya elingokomthetho.

Iziqondiso Nezinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Inkulumo yeNkantolo Ephakeme isikisela ukuthi ukuzivikela kombuso wokuzibusa kuyohlala kuyisivikelo esiqinile ezimweni eziningi, kodwa izimpikiswano eziningana ezingaxazululwa nezinguquko ezingase ziyishintshe lemfundiso. Izazi ezingokomthetho nezazi zibhekisisa lezindawo ezilandelayo.

Ukukhishwa Kwenhlangano Ngaphansi Kwengxenye 5 YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

INkantolo iye yaphikelela ngokuthi uKhongolo lungavikela uhulumeni ngokulinganayo lapho lumisa iSichibiyelo se 145 sokukhipha isiqinisekiso, njengaku iDolobha lase Boerne v. Flores (1997) kanye [[FLT:] ne[FLT]] [FLT] ne[FLT] uNUDA] no-Navada weZinzuzo zobuntu ne-Crects's's's's's's' [Izingahlelelwa i-Foct:] [2003] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] , isekela ukuxoxiswa kwemiza ngaphansi kwelungiselelo lomkhaya ne-Rescial Actsstingssssssss, uma ingekhona imvume yokuvicengwa kwezimiso zokuhlenga, noma ukuvikelwa kwenani eliphansi, uma kuvuselelwa i-ADasethi elonayokuvuse.[

Ukuvunyelwa Kwezwe NeWaiver

I-States ingasiphazamisa kakhulu isobhomu lokuzimela sona ngokuvuma, ngokucacile noma ngokuhlanganyela ezinhlelweni zikahulumeni ezisizayo ekusebenziseni i-opiter. Inkantolo iye yachaza ukuvinjelwa ngokulinganiselwe: ku-Sossamon v. Texas [20], yakholelwa ukuthi ukwamukela imali kahulumeni ngaphansi kwezwe Lenkolo isetshenziswa ne-Institutialtiveal Pertive Act akukwakhanga umthathi wokuzivikela. Ngokufanayo, iHofisi yeSivirigia yesivikelo ne-Advoctacy.[FLT:] (20) yayikholelwa ukuthi akukho ukuvimbela ukulawulwa kwesimiso sombuso ngokudala ukuba kuyile i-sue. Inqulusuku lwesikhathi esizayo luyokunikeza inkulumo ecacile, ukuthi izinhleloni ezisekwenezelwe noma zingezi ezisezingeni ezithile zokuzibondayo.[FLT][FG."3:1] (20) ishov)

Ukusetshenziswa Kwezindawo Ezintsha: Imininingwane Eyimfihlo, Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu, Nezibhamu

Izindawo ezihlanganisayo zokungangeni zindawo zemininingwane eyimfihlo njengokungathi ukuphulwa kwezindawo zemininingwane yezinhlangano zikahulumeni, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu ngokumelene nezithiyo zikahulumeni, nezinselele zokumisa imithetho yezibhamu.(*) kuzokuvivinya imingcele yesimiso sokuvikela izikhali ezizimele. Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphansi kwe-Health Inshuwarence Portability and Accoubility Act (HIPAA), abantu abazimele abakwazi ukumangalela amasheya ngenxa yokuphulwa ulwazi ngoba i-HIPAA ayiluvumeli ukuvikela ukumelana nesimiso somzimba. Ngokufanayo, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu okulethwa amaqembu angawebodwa ngokumelene nezindawo ezikhumuzayo noma umkhukuliseli wesi ngokuvamile ezingeni zokuvikela izikhali. INkantolo ingabuzwa ukunquma ukuthi izenzo ezithile zikahulumeni (umk., ukusebenza kwemboni yamalahle) kuveza ukuvikelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela noma ukuvikelwa kwezindawo ezintsha.

Mayelana neSichibiyelo Sesibili, ngemva kweNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022], imithetho yezibhamu ibhekene nokuhlolwa okukhulu. Ama-Plaintion angafuna imiyalo ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ngaphansi Ex ee Young, kodwa angeke akwazi ukubuyisa umonakalo ovela esifundazweni ngokwaso. Inkantolo i-evo i-jurispramendice ngezindlela zomthetho we-mthetho ingavula umnyango wokukhululeka okungalinganiyo okungagwenywayo [[FLT] ukuzivikela.

Izinguquko Ezingokomthetho Nezokwahlulela

Ezinye izazi ziye zahlongoza ukukhomba iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye ukuze kuvunyelwe uMkhandlu ukuba ulwelwe igebe ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I, kanjalo ushintshe USimiNOLE TB. Ezinye zisekela imithetho kahulumeni yokuthi izimali zifaka imvume yemali kahulumeni emalini evimbela ukuvinjelwa okucacile kwemithetho eqondile efuna ukunqandwa imibandela ethile eqinisekisiwe. [Ngaphandleni kwezehlulele], iNkanto inganciphisa izinga lokuzivikela komthetho ngokufunda i-Andemily Reformation, ilinganise ilinganisele intengo ehlukeneyo njengoba kwakunjalo ekuqaleni, kodwa lokhu kubonakala kungenakunikezwa ngokungenakunikezwa incazelo yeNkanto yamuva nje yeNkanto.

Enye inguquko engenzeka ukusetshenziswa okubanzi kwe- Indaba eqanjiwe ye-Young ukuvulela izikhulu zesifundazwe isu lokujezisa ngisho nalapho ikhambi lidinga ukuthatha isinyathelo sombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Whole Lady’s Health v. Hellerst[[[FLT]] [2016], iNkantolo yavumela ukuphoqelelwa komthetho we-Texas yokukhipha izisu ukuba zisetshenziswe ngaphandle kokuvimbela ukunqanda ukunqanda ukuvimbela. Izenzakalo zesikhathi esizayo ezihilela izimiso eziqinile zikahulumeni zingabona ukwanda kweNkantolo yezomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko zikhona noma zivumelana nale sivumelwano esigxotsheni.

Isiphetho

Ikusasa lokuzivikela kombuso liyololongwa ukuzimisela kweNkantolo Ephakeme ukunamathela ezibonelweni zayo ezisekelwe kuhulumeni nangamandla oMkhandlu womthetho womthetho owenziwe osinda ekuhlolweni komthetho ngaphansi kwengxenye 5. Okwamanje, izifunda zijabulela isivikelo esibanzi ekuhlawulweni okuyimfihlo, kodwa ngaphandle kwenkululeko nesudi zikahulumeni ophethe uhulumeni ophethe, ziwagcina enecala ngokuphula umthetho owephula umthetho. Othisha, abafundi, nabezomthetho kufanele bahlole amacala azayo anjengalawo mithetho kahulumeni eyinselele, iziqondiso zendawo ezungezile, nemithetho yokuvota, njengoba ziyonikeza isiqephu esilandelayo kulendaba eguquguqukayo.

Ukungezwani phakathi kobukhosi bombuso namalungelo omuntu ngamunye akunakwenzeka ukuba kuxazululwe ngokuqinisekile. Njengoba iNkantolo iqhubeka ihlola lezizithakazelo ezincintisanayo, imfundiso yokuvikela ukubusa kwayo ihlala ibalulekile, kanti futhi ngokuvamile iqala ukuphikisana − ne-("isici somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika." Ukuqonda izinqumo zamuva nezisekelo zazo kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukulawula i-parealism ngekhulu lama-21.