Isingeniso: Isisekelo Sikahulumeni Olinganiselwe

Isimiso sikahulumeni olinganiselwe siyisisekelo sokubusa kwentando yeningi. Iqinisekisa ukuthi igunya lezwe lisetshenziswa phakathi kwemingcele ecacile, ivimbela ukubusa okungenamthetho futhi ivikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Izimiso ezingokomthetho zinikeza izakhiwo zalemingcele, ukuhumusha imibandela yentando yeningi ibe yimithetho ephoqelelwe. Lesi sihloko sihlola izimiso eziyinhloko zesivumelwano somphakathi, umthetho ophoqelela ohulumeni ukuba benze ngokucace, ngokungenakungaguquguquki, futhi ngokungaguquki basebenzise amalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngaphandle kokuzibekela imithetho engokomthetho eqinile, ngisho nohulumeni abakhethwe ngombuso wedemokhrasi bangaphambukela emyani, njengoba umlando ubonisa ngokuphindaphindiwe. Lesi sihloko sihlola izimiso eziyinhloko ezingokomthetho .

Amalungiselelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Imithetho-sisekelo iyimithetho ephakeme yamazwe entando yeningi. Ihlanganisa amalungiselelo ahlukanisa amandla kahulumeni namalungelo ezakhamuzi. Umthetho-sisekelo obekwe kahle awunikeli igunya nje kuphela; futhi ubeka imingcele yokwakha neyokuhlela. Izici ezintathu zibucayi kakhulu.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kahulumeni kuhlukanisa imithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni ibe ngamagatsha ahlukene − ukuhlukanisa, ukuhlukanisa, ukumisa, nokunqanda ukufakwa kwamandla kunoma yiliphi isikhungo esisodwa. Lengxenye ayiphelele kodwa iyasebenza; igatsha ngalinye lisebenza ngokwalo endaweni yalo elabelwe yona. Ngokwesibonelo, uMthetho-sisekelo we-U. unika umthetho umthetho eKhongolo, ukubulala uMongameli, nokufushanisa izinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izimiso eziningi zepalamende, njengezeJalimane, nazo zihlanganisa inkantolo eqinile njengegatsha lesine lobuphathi. Ukwehlukana kuqiniswa ngemithetho ebekwa amalungu angenayo: akukho umfundisi osebenza kanye kanye njengomahluleli noma njengomphathi wemithetho ezindaweni eziningi.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela

Amaphenya nokulinganisela kusungule izinqubo zegatsha ngalinye ukuze lilinganisele amandla amanye, kuqinisekise ukubambisana nokwengamela. Isimiso se-U.S. siwuphawu: uMongameli angawukhipha umthetho weveto, kodwa uKhongolo lungawususa lowo mthetho ngevoti eyisithathu ezimbili; iSigebengu siqinisekisa ukumiswa kwezikhulu futhi sifake izivumelwano; igebe likahulumeni lingayiphula imithetho njengengagunyaziwe. EUnited Kingdom, lapho umphathi edonswa khona endlu yomthetho, ihlola isimo sobukhosi bephalamende, ukuphikiswa okuqinile, neNdlulo yeNkosi iphinde iyenze izivumelwano. Izimiso ziqinisekisa ukuthi akukho gatsha elingathatha indima eyodwa ngokungenayo ezintweni ezibalulekile.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo

Amabhukwana amalungelo aqinisekisa amalungelo ayisisekelo nenkululeko, ukuvikela abantu kuhulumeni ophathwe kabi. Lamalungelo aqoshwe ngemithetho esemthethweni, inkolo, inqubo efanelekile, isivikelo esifanayo, isebenza njengemingcele enqunyiweyo yokusebenza kwemithetho yezomthetho nezokuphatha. I-U.S. Bill of Rights (izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi) ne-Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ishow fish. Kumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wanamuhla, amalungelo awayona nje imiqondo ephambene (inkululeko yokungenela uhulumeni) kodwa futhi ayakhanyathisela (izikhundla zemfundo, impatho yezempilo), ifaka izivumelwano kuhulumeni. Inkantolo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo iqinisekisa ukuthi abadlali bahlonipha imingcele abayibekayo.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukubukeza ukwahlulela kuyithuluzi elinamandla elivumela izinkantolo ukuba zihlole ubukho bezenzo zikahulumeni nomthetho. Lenqubo inikeza ukuhlola kokwahlulela emandleni omthetho nabaphathi, esebenza njengesivikelo sokugcina ekuxhashazweni komthetho we-athom. Icala lesibonakaliso se-U.S. Marbury v. Madison [1803]) yamisa amandla ezinkantolo zikahulumeni okunciphisa imithetho engqubuzana noMthetho-sisekelo. Kusukela ngalesosikhathi, ukubukezwa komthetho kusakazekele e democraticism kusakazekele ezindaweni eziningi, nakuba ubukhulu bawo buyehluka.

Ukuchazwa Kwemithetho

Izinkantolo zichaza imithetho ngokuvumelana nezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo, ziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana namalungelo amisiwe. Ukuchazwa komthetho-mthetho kungaba yi-screctalist (ufuna incazelo yokuqala) noma uxwebhu oluphilayo (izindinganiso ezihambelanayo). EJalimane, iFederal Constitutional Court isebenzisa ukuhlolwa kokulinganisa ukuze ihlole ukuthi umthetho uphula ilungelo nokuthi lowo mthetho ulungile yini. Lendlela ifuna ukuba uhulumeni abonise injongo engokomthetho, ukuhlobana, ukudingeke, nokulingana i-lito relationo relation . Ukuhlola okunjalo kuveza ukucaca kanye namandla ombuso othethelela inkululeko yawo.

Ukuhlelwa Kwezimo

Izinqumo zokwahlulela zakha izenzakalo ezibophayo eziqondisa amacala esikhathini esizayo, ziqinisa izindinganiso zomthetho ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ezimisweni zomthetho ezivamile, izinkantolo eziphansi ziboshelwa yizinqumo eziphezulu ngaphansi kwemithetho yenkantolo stare decis[. Ngisho nasemazweni omthetho-mphakathi, izahlulelo zenkantolo zomthetho zenza ukuba i-quasi-legislative. Ngokwesibonelo, izinqumo zeConseil Conseil Constitule Consticel zemithetho emisha ziba yinguquko embhalweni we-Ivition. Ngokulungisa incazelo yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho, inciphisa ukungaqiniseki kwezekelele futhi yenza isihluthulelo somthetho.

Ukufinyelela Ekulungeni

Izakhamuzi zingabekela inselele izenzo zikahulumeni enkantolo, zinikeza indlela yokuziphendulela. Lokhu kudinga imithetho eqinile engasibekelenga kakhulu, kanye nezinqubo ezibizayo nezifike ngesikhathi zomthetho. Amazwe amaningi amise izinqubo zokukhononda zomthetho-mthetho ezivumela abantu ukuba bacele ngokuqondile enkantolo ephakeme. [I-Valtungsswerde i-Varfurscherde [[FLT] [indlela yokuziphendulela] [indlela yokukhombisa] [indlela yokukhomba]] iyisibonelo esikhonjiwe kakhulu: noma yimuphi umuntu othi uphule amalungelo abo ayisisekelo angaletha icala ngemva kokushwa kwezinye izikhambiza. Ngokufanayo, umthetho waseNingizimu Afrika unikeza noma isiphi isithakazelo sabo somphakathi, ngaphandle kokuzihlola okuphumelelayo.

Ukuphatha Okungokomthetho

Njengoba igatsha lilandisa ngokuqondile kubavoti, amaphalamende nezingqungquthela ziklanyelwe ukucubungula isikhulu. Izinqubo eziningi zezinhlangano zisiza kule misebenzi.

Amakomiti

Amakomiti akhethekile ahlola imisebenzi kahulumeni, anika izikhulu icala ngezenzo zawo. Amakomiti azimele ezindaweni ezinjengezezimali, ubulungisa, nezindaba zakwamanye amazwe asingatha ukuqulwa kwezindaba, izincwadi, kanye nezindaba ezingaphansi kwe-Profesphona. KuMkhandlu we-U.S., amakomiti angaphoqelela ubufakazi futhi anikeze izimemezelo zokudelelwa lapho ofakazi benqaba ukubambisana. Amakomiti akhethiwe ePalamende le-UK, asebenza ngemishini evimbela ukuguquka kweminyango yezempatho.

Ukuqulwa Kwecala Komphakathi

Abameli baqhuba ukuqulwa kwecala ukuze baqoqe ukwaziswa futhi bavumele izakhamuzi ukuba ziveze ukukhathazeka ngokuqondene nezimiso zikahulumeni. Lokhu kulalela kuvame ukuvulelwa abezindaba nomphakathi, kuqinisekiswe ukuba sobala. Bangadalula ukungaqondi kahle, ukonakala, noma ukwehluleka kwezimiso. Phakathi nenkinga yezimali ka-2008, ukuqulwa kwezindawo ezisemhlanganweni e-U.S. kwaletha ukuhlola komphakathi emikhubeni yamabhange nasendleleni yokusabela kohulumeni. Ezimisweni zephalamende, isikhathi sokungabaza isikhathi (hhhhhhhathi izikhonzi okumelwe ziphendule ngenjongo efanayo, ziphoqe ukuba isikhulu seze isikhulu seze kungenelo yaso ngesikhathi sangempela.

Ukugunyazwa Kokusetshenziswa Kwemali

Izishaya-mthetho zilawula ukusetshenziswa kwemali yomphakathi, ziqinisekisa ukuthi izimali zabelwa ngokuvumelana nentando yeningi. “lamandla esikhwama” angenye yezihlolo ezindala kakhulu egunyeni eliphethe. Imithetho eminingi ifuna ukuba noma yiyiphi intela noma izindleko zigunyazwe umthetho. Impikiswano yemithetho kanye nokuvota ezimalini, futhi amakomiti ahlela izimali ahlelwe ngokwentando yentando yeningi. Kwamanye amazwe, isiphakamiso sinamandla okulungisa izindleko zesikhulu esihlongozomthetho. Uma isikhulu sizama ukudlulisa intela ngemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho noma ngemithetho esetshenziswayo engekho emthethweni, ukukhokha izindleko zemali; ukukhokhwa kwemithetho okulawulwa kwezentando yentando yeningi kuvimbela ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho.

Umthetho Oqondisayo

Umthetho ophethe ubusa imisebenzi yezinhlangano eziphethe zikahulumeni. Lendawo yomthetho iqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zingokomthetho, zinengqondo, futhi zilungile ngokwesiko. Njengoba umbuso wanamuhla usukhulile, izinhlangano zokuphatha ziye zathatha izinhlelo ezinkulu zokubusa nezokufungisa, zenza umthetho wokuphatha ube yisehlo esibalulekile.

Imikhuba Yokubuswa Kwemibuso

Izinhlelo kumelwe zilandele izinqubo ezimisiwe lapho zenza imithetho, zivumele ukufakwa komphakathi nokubonakala. I-Administrative Procedure Act (APA) idinga isaziso nenqubo yokuxhumana: izinhlangano zikhipha imithetho ehlongozwayo eFederal Register, zimema izinkulumo zomphakathi, futhi ziphendule ezindabeni ezibalulekile ngaphambi kokukhipha umthetho wokugcina. Le nqubo izinhlangano zemishini zithethelela izinqumo zazo futhi zicabangele ezinye izindlela. Emazweni amaningi amazwe amaningi anezimfuneko ezifanayo. Ku-European Union, i-Reglation Agenda i-yal Revingless, ukukhipha izinqumo nokubuza umphakathi phambi kwezicelo ezinkulu zokuqondisa. Imithetho ye-procedrual inciphisa izingozi zezimiso ezizezenzwe noma ezithunjiwe ngokusemthethweni.

Ukubukezwa Kwezenzo Zokwahlulela

Izinkantolo zingahlola izinqumo zezinhlangano ukuze ziqinisekise ukuthi zivumelana nezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho nomthetho-sisekelo. Indinganiso yokubukeza iyahlukahluka: e-U.S., ngaphansi kwe i-Chevron imfundiso (manje ishintshwe yizishaya-mthetho zeNkantolo Eziphakeme), izinkantolo eziyekelelayo ukuchazwa okunengqondo kwemithetho ecacile; eUK, izinkantolo zisebenzisa indinganiso enengqondo ngaphansi Wednesburyry[[[] ukubukeza. Kungakhathaliseki indinganiso, ukubukeza okunga ngokuhlehlela emuva ezinqulweni zemithetho eqinile. Izimo kumelwe zihlale phakathi kwegunya lazo ezigunyaziwe futhi zilandele umthetho. Uma zihluleka, izinkantolo zingahlela eceleni noma zihlele ezinye izinqumo.

Ilungelo Lokukhanga

Abantu abathinteka ngezinqumo zokuphatha bangakhanga amagunya aphakeme, banikeze i-existes kumandla ezinhlangano. Izikhalo zangaphakathi, amahhovisi, nezinkantolo ngokuvamile zisebenza njengamakhambi okuqala aphezulu. Ngokwesibonelo, i-UK’s First-tier Tribunal izwa izikhalo ezimelene nezinqumo zezinhlangano zikahulumeni ezindabeni ezisukela entengisweni kuya ekuthuthweni kwabantu. Ukusuka lapho, ukunxusa kungaya e-Upper Tribunal futhi ngezinye izikhathi kuya eNkantolweni yokudlulisa Amacala. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha angalungiswa ngaphandle kokuya enkantolo yomthetho-mthetho, okwenza isimiso siphumelele futhi siphumelele.

Umthetho Wamalungelo Abantu Emhlabeni Wonke

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wamazwe onke umisa izindinganiso ohulumeni okumelwe bazinamathele kuzo, balinganisele amandla abo phezu kwabantu ngabanye. Nakuba ngokwesiko ibhekwa njengendaba yobukhosi basekhaya, inkathi yangemva kweMpi Yezwe II yabona ukuvela kwemibuso yomhlaba wonke ephoqelela ukuthatha isinyathelo sombuso ngisho naphakathi kwemingcele yezwe.

Izivumelwano Nemihlangano

Amazwe afaka izivumelwano zezizwe zonke ezivikela amalungelo omphakathi, ezomnotho, ezenhlalo, namasiko. Isivumelwano sezizwe zonke samalungelo abantu namalungelo abantu (ICCPR) neSivumelwano sezizwe zonke esiphathelene nezezomnotho, iSocial and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) iyisisekelo sesivumelwano somthetho wezizwe zonke wamalungelo. Izimiso zezifunda (ezinjenge-European Convention on Human Rights (ECH), ne-Africareter on Human Rights’s Rights (ECPH) ne-oral’s Conftwares joctives. Lezi zikha izibopho ezibopha izibopho ezibopha amaqembu esizwe, futhi izinkantolo zasekhaya zivame ukuzifaka emthethweni wesizwe. Ngokwesibonelo, i-UK’Constice Actal Rights Act inikeza i-precial protectalsmentalsworation ne-monding for transmistmentmentmental.

Ukuhlola Izindikimba

Izinhlangano zomhlaba wonke ziqondisa ukuvumelana nezindinganiso zamalungelo abantu, zibheka ohulumeni ukuba balandise ngokuphulwa. Ikomiti yamalungelo abantu (ye-ICCPR), iNkantolo yaseYurophu Yamalungelo Abantu (ECTR), ne-Inter-American Commission on Human Rights ziyizibonelo ezivelele. Ithola imibiko evela ezizweni, ukuqashelwa, futhi ngezinye izikhathi ingazwa izikhalo ngamanye amalungu. Izahlulelo ze-ECTHR zibopha amalungu e-ikhokhwa i-Councilty of Europe. I-Non-liance ingaphumela ekucindezeleni kwezentengiselwano noma ngisho nasekususweni kwenhlangano. Lokhu kuhlola kwangaphandle kwenezela ungwengwevu lokulandisa okunganikeza izinhlelo zokulandisa zezimiso zezokulandisa.

Ukukhononda Komshini Kungumuntu Ngamunye

Izakhamuzi zingaletha izikhalo ngokumelene nohulumeni bazo ezindikimbeni zomhlaba wonke, zifuna ukuvuselelwa ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kabi kwamalungelo abantu. I-ECTHR ihlela izinkulungwane zezicelo ngazinye unyaka ngamunye, futhi izimemezelo zayo ziye zaphoqelela ushintsho enkantolo yesizwe, njengasemikhubeni yokuhlola noma amalungelo eziboshwa okuvota. Ngaphansi kwe-ICPR’S First Accomplification Protocol, abantu ngabanye ezizweni ezisekela ama-raisensi bangafaka izikhalo eKomitini yamaLungelo Obuntu ye-UN. Nakuba izinqumo zekomiti zingaboshinti ngokomthetho ngendlela efanayo njengezahlulelo zenkantolo, zinesisindo esiphawulekayo sokuziphatha nesombululo sezombangazwe.

Ukuhlanganyela Komphakathi Nokubona Izibuko

Ukuhlanganyela komphakathi nokubonakala kubalulekile ekulinganiseni amandla kahulumeni. Uma izakhamuzi zitshelwa futhi zithembisene, zingaziphendulela izikhulu. Izinqubo ezingokomthetho ezikhuthaza ukuthulula izifuba nokuhileleka komphakathi kuqinisa umbuso wentando yeningi kusukela phansi.

Inkululeko Yolwazi

Lemithetho ivumela izakhamuzi ukuba zikwazi ukufinyelela amarekhodi kahulumeni, zikhuthaza ukuvaleka nokulandisa. Inkululeko yolwazi (FOIA) iyisibonelo esivelele, ikwazi ukunikeza izintatheli, abashisekeli, nabantu abavamile ukucela izincwadi ezisukela emibhalweni yezezimali kuya kwezokuxhumana ne-imeyili. Amazwe amaningi aye athatha imithetho efanayo, nakuba izinga lokukhulula nokuphoqelela lihlukile. Imibuso ye-FOI esebenzayo idinga ukukhishwa okunenzuzo kokwaziswa okuyinhloko, ukuhlelwa kwemishini ephansi, nokungaqondisi ngokomthetho. Ngaphandle kokwazi ukuxhumana nge-imeyili, izakhamuzi ngeke zikwazi ukubheka izenzo zikahulumeni noma ukuhlasela.

Ukubusa Okunengxenye

Imishini enjengezokuhlola umphakathi yenza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukungenela ezinqubweni zokwenza izinqumo. Lokhu kungahlelwa ngezikhathi zokukhulumela komphakathi, ngemihlangano yehholo ledolobha, noma ngokuhlela uhlelo lokuhlela imali. EBrazil, ukuhlelwa kwemali yokuhlukanisa emadolobheni afana noPorto Alegre, kuye kwanika izakhamuzi imvume yokusho ngokuqondile ukuthi kusetshenziswa kukamasipala. E-European Union, i-Commission iqhuba ukuxoxa nomthetho womthetho womthetho. Nakuba kungezona zonke izingxenye ezibophanayo, iphoqelela ohulumeni ukuba bacabangele imibono ehlukeneyo futhi bambule amaphutha emithethweni ehlombe. Imithetho yemvume yokubonana nezakhamuzi iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuthembisa okunjalo akusona nje isifaneki.

Izivikelo Zokuvuthela

Imithetho ivikela abantu ababika ukuziphatha okubi kukahulumeni, ukukhuthaza ukulandisa nokuthembeka. Ababhula ngezikhali ngokuvamile babhekene nokuphindisela, ngakho kudingekile izihlangu eziqinile zomthetho. IWhistlepinder Protection Act yase-U.S. iqinisa ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ivimbela izenzo ezimbi zezisebenzi zikahulumeni ezidalula ukwaziswa okungekho emthethweni, ukungcola, noma ukuxhaphaza. Imithetho efanayo ikhona e democracy eningi. Izisekelo zezizwe zonke, njengalezo ezikhuthazwa yiNhlangano yezentengiselwano yekho-cooperation ne Development (OECD), ikhuthaza imikhuba emihle kakhulu. Ngaphandle kwesivikelo esingokomthetho, ingozi yokukhuluma ngaphandle komthetho iphakeme kakhulu, futhi ukwaziswa okubalulekile ngohulumeni okungalawuleki noma ukonakala akuboni neze ukukhanya kosuku.

Isiphetho

Izilungiselelo ezingokomthetho zokulinganisela amandla kahulumeni zibalulekile empilweni yezinhlangano zentando yeningi. Ngokumisa imingcele ecacile, ukuqinisekisa ukulandisa, nokuvikela amalungelo abantu, lezi zici zisekela izimiso zentando yeningi. Amalungiselelo omthetho womthetho-mthetho, ukubukeza imithetho, ukuqondisa kwemithetho, umthetho wokuphatha, umthetho wezizwe zonke wamalungelo abantu, kanye nezimiso zokuhlukanisa, ngasinye sinikela esimisweni sokuhlola esivimbela ukusetshenziswa kabi kwegunya. Nokho, lezizakhiwo azizona ezokuzihlukanisa; zidinga ukuqapha okuqhubekayo, imingcele yezombangazwe, nenhlalo yesizwe esebenzayo. Enkathini yokunyuka kwe-popublical, amandla okuphuthuma, nezinsongo eziyinkimbinkimbi, izinhlangano zezentengo yombuso wentando yeningi kumelwe ziqhubeke zisebenzisa futhi ziqinise lezi zindawo ezingokomthetho. Ukugcinwa kwentando yeningi akuncikelwe ekuzini okuhlanganyelwayo komthetho kanye nemingcele okungakazeki.

[[QULT:0] Ukuqhubeka ufunda:[ U.S.Constitution [[FLT:]] [ iNkantolo yamalungelo abantu ye-Eucian Amalungelo abantu[[] . . . . . .UN Amalungelo abantu []