Imfundiso Yokuvumelana: Ukumiswa Kwamalungelo Ombuso Namalungelo Ombuso

Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Doctrine injengenye yentuthuko eguqula kakhulu eMthethweni waseMelika. Ngochungechunge lwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, lemfundiso iye yasebenzisa kancane kancane amalungiselelo amaningi eSiphakamiso samalungelo abantu kuhulumeni nasehulumeni bendawo, iqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo ivikelekile kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yiliphi izinga lezenzo zikahulumeni. Ukuqonda i - Incorporation Doctrine kubalulekile kunoma ubani ohlola inkululeko yanamuhla yomphakathi, futhi uchaza ukuthi kungani iSiphakamiso Sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma sisebenza ngokumelene nomthetho wedolobha, noma ukuthi kungani umbuso kumelwe unikeze ummeli ummangalelwa oqinile. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinga lemfundiso engokomlando, izinqumo eziyinhloko zeNkanto ephakeme, kanye nezithiso ezithinta kakhulu indlela inkululeko yomphakathi efundiswa ngayo futhi iqondwa ngayo namuhla.

Isisekelo Somlando: Isizathu Sokuba Ukuhlobana Kudingeke

IBill of Rights, eyagunyazwa ngo - 1791, ekuqaleni yayihloselwe ukuhlola uhulumeni omusha kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yakwenza kwacaca lokhu Barron v. Baltimore (1833), iphethe ukuthi iSimemezelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu asizange sisebenzise ezenzweni zikahulumeni. UMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall wacabanga ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wasungulwa abantu baseUnited States ngokwabo, ngohulumeni wabo siqu, hhayi ngohulumeni wezwe ngalinye.

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, iSichibiyelo sokulungisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo seMinyaka Eyisine saklanyelwa ukubeka imingcele emisha emandleni kahulumeni. Ingxenye 1 yeSichibiyelo se 145 ithi akukho mbuso ozo "wawungabuye ume umhlaneyo, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Umbuzo oyinhloko waba ukuthi "iSiphendulo" esivikelwe yi-'Uhlelo luka-Celace'e" sasihlanganisa amalungelo akhethekile abekwe eBill of Rights. Emashumini eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamelana nokufundwa, eyaziwa kakhulu e iMacasethiwe [FLD:1] [181] [18], eyachaza kancane amalungelo noma i-Immituniclausss (18]) ngokuhlanganisa ngokufanelekile.

" Umbono wokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sasihloselwe ukuhlanganisa lonke iBill of Rights okokuqala yahlongozwa uMahluleli John Marshall Harlan ekuphikisaneni kwakhe Hurtado v. California[ [1884]. Kodwa iNkantolo ayizange iqonde ngokungathi sína kwaze kwaba yikhulu lama-20.

Indlela Yokukhetha Ukukhetha: Ijubane Nangalé Kwalo

Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Doctrine yaqala ngempela ukuvela kuma 1920. Gitlow v. eNew York[FLT:] (1925), iNkantolo yakhuluma ngomthetho kahulumeni owephula umthetho wobudlova be-Grouptic. Nakuba abahluleli basekela uBenjamin Gitlow's, bavuma okokuqala ukuthi isivikelo senkululeko yokukhuluma seSichibiyelo sokuqala sisebenza ezindaweni ngenqubo yeSigwebo seSinyuso se 145 seSinyuko sika Claus. IJaji lika-Edward Sanford labhala ukuthi "Inkululeko yenkulumo neyokunyathelisa ." evikelwa yintethelelo yokuqala yezelo enciphelweni encishiswe yi-Congrescence eqed shovery ne-'oral'stion's propertivementededededededededededededededededededededededed of of of Geoldding)."

Lesi simemezelo sengqokoso savula amafasite. Nearbb. Minnesota[FL:1] (1931]), iNkantolo yasebenzisa isiqinisekiso samaphephandaba akhululekile ezifundazweni, yawisa umthetho kahulumeni ovumela ukuvinjelwa kwangaphambili kwe "yaha, ehlazisayo, nehlazisayo" iphephandaba. [[FLT]] DEJONE v. v.[FLT] [[FLT] [12] [indlela] Iqembu lezehlakalo] [indlela] [ikhulu] [[FLT] [ikhulu] [ikhulu] [indlela] [ikhululo] [ikhulu lamahlelo] [ikhulu angathi alikwazi ukuthatha i-mgobonbon enkolo. Lezicishini ezithiyo" [indlela ezithiyo] [i izithi ze-Bill:magnomes.[Ft]

Impikiswano: I-Incorporation vs. Ukukhetha okungakhethwa

IJaji uHugo Black laphikisana ngokudume kakhulu "ngonyaka" ._nombono wokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sasihloselwe ukusebenzisa iSiphendulo seSimiso samalungelo abantu sonke. Ekuphikisani kwakhe ku- Adamson v. California[ (1947), ubufakazi obungokomlando obuqediwe obuvela ezimpikiswaneni zokuhlanganisa i-Constanton ukuze kusekelwe isikhundla sakhe. Nokho, iningi leNkanto yeNkantolo lalahla leyo ndlela yokusondela, likhetha "uhlangothi oluqinile". Ngaphansi kwalokho, lelolungelo "inkululeko" kuphela eliyilungelo lokulawula""" (njengoJavinio - qcomston Cardzo) lizichaza [FLT:].[FFF.[3][FF] [37]) [197]

Ukukhetha ukuhlanganisa kuye kwanqoba. Namuhla, cishe wonke amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo aye afakwa engxenyeni ephawulekayo enjengesiHlanziso sesithathu (ingqungquthela yamasosha), imfuneko enkulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu, neSivumelwano seSiphendu sesizwe seSevengende. Ilungelo lesibili lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali lifakwe McDonald v. Chicago [2010], kanye ne-pager yeSichimende seSichimende seSijimende se-Hebeth sihlala singaqiniseki.

Amacala Ayinhloko Enkantolo Achaza Lemfundiso

Ngalé kwamacala okuqala okukhuluma ngokukhululekile, uchungechunge lwemithetho ephawulekayo ngawo - 1960 lwandisa ubukhulu bamalungelo ahlanganisiwe ngokuphawulekayo. lamacala ahlala ebalulekile kunoma yiziphi iziqephu zomphakathi noma kunoma yiziphi izifundo zomthetho - sisekelo.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): Ukubusa OkuyiExclussionary Kusetshenziswa E - United States

Ku Mapp v.O., amaphoyisa ahlola uDollree Map's ekhaya ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni, athola izinto ezingcolile, futhi ambopha. INkantolo Ephakeme yasiguqula isiqinisekiso sakhe, iphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sesine esinqabela ukuphenya nokuquleka kusebenza ezifundazweni (nendlela yokukhipha umthetho otholakele ngokungekho emthethweni) siyikhambiza elibalulekile. Lesi sinqumo esiphoqeqeshiwe ngokomthetho wezwe nemithetho yendawo ukuba ihambisane nezindinganiso ze-Remendement, ishintsha ngokuphawulekayo inqubo yobugebengu ezweni lonke.

UGideon (1963): Ilungelo lokunikeza Iseluleko Kubo Bonke

Clarence Earl Gideon wayengumuntu ompofu ophambukile owayebekwe icala lokugqekeza egumbini eliseFlorida. Wacela ummeli kodwa wenqatshwa ngoba iFlorida kuphela yayinikeza iseluleko emacaleni abulalayo. INkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo leSiqediso Sesithupha sokululeka liyilungelo elibalulekile elisebenza ezizweni. Lelicala laphumela ekudalweni kwezimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela ezweni lonke. Isikhumbuzo ngaphandle kwe-Florida capitol siphawula ithonya likaGideyoni ekwahluleleni.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ukuvikelwa Kwe - Constodial Interrogtion

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu esimelene nokuziphikisa safakwa ezizweni [ku- Malloy v. Hogan [1964]. Eminyakeni emibili kamuva, imanda v. INkantolo yakhiwa kuleso sisekelo ngokufuna amaphoyisa azile amalungelo awo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume. Izeluleko manje ze-familiar Miranda. Nakuba isinqumo sasiyimpikiswano, iye yaba yisiciko elikhulu kulokhu kwenziwa amaphoyisa aseMelika futhi yazijwayeko.

UDuncan . Louisiana (1968): Ukuqulwa Kwecala LikaJury Ezicini Ezingathi Sína

ISichibiyelo sesithupha sokuqulwa kwecala labahluleli sasetshenziswa ezindaweni [ku- Duncan v. Louisiana. Inkantolo yathi "inkantolo yabahluleli emacaleni obugebengu iyisisekelo secebo lokwahlulela lase-Melika." Lelicala lacacisa ukuthi kumelwe ukuba kube khona abahluleli kunoma yiliphi icala elingathi sína (elichazwa njengalabo abaphethe isigwebo sezinyanga ezingaphezu kweziyisithupha ukuboshwa).

Timbs v. Indiana (209): Inqubo Eqhubekayo

Ngisho nasekhulwini lama-21, iNkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka icacisa ukuhlanganiswa. Timbs v. Indiana, iNkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi izinhlawulo zeSichibiyelo seNguquko seNkantolo seNkantolo seNkantolo ezidlulele ziyasebenza ezizweni. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi isivikelo ekubuseni imali eshisiwe yi "esekelwe esicelweni sethu senkululeko emisiwe"" Lelicala libonisa ukuthi i - Incorporation Doctrition ayisona ingumbhalo womlando kodwa ithonya eliqhubekayo ekuchazeni umthetho - ngokomthetho.

Ithonya Emfundweni Yomphakathi Yokukhulula

Imfundiso ye - Incorporation Doctrine iyihlela kakhulu indlela inkululeko yomphakathi efundiswa ngayo ezikoleni nasemayunivesithi aseMelika. Ngaphambi kokuba ihlanganiswe, kungenzeka ukuthi uhlelo lweSichibiyelo Sokuqala lwalugxile kakhulu ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni kuphela. Namuhla, othisha kumelwe bakhulume ngendlela amalungelo afana ngayo kuzo zonke izigaba zikahulumeni.

Ukufundisa Umsebenzi Wokuzivikela Owawenziwa Ngemibhoshongo

Abafundi bafunda ukuthi iBill of Rights inikeza iphansi .ongeke inikeze uphahla lwesivikelo. Amazwe anganikeza isivikelo senkululeko yomphakathi esikhulu kunalezo ezinikezwa nguMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, kodwa awanakwehla ngaphansi kwesilinganiso esiqinisekiswe yilungelo elihlanganisiwe. Lokhu "ukukhulula" kuyisimiso esibalulekile. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni ungafuna ukugcinwa komthetho ukuze uthole imvume ngaphambi kokungena kokwaziswa okusendaweni yocingo okusekelwe kumthetho wezwe oqinile, kodwa ngeke uvumele ukuphenya okungena ngokomthetho ukuthi iSiphendulo Sesine (njengelungu) sivimbela.

Ukugcizelela Indlela Yokukhomba Ezindaweni Eziningi

Izakhamuzi eziningi zincike kakhulu ekuhloleni amaphutha ezindaba. Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Inikeza uhlelo lwemvelo: kuqalwa ngenkathi yenguquko Barron nomqondo wesimo sesizwe esiphindiwe, ohamba phakathi [ Gutlow[[ kanye nokuqalisa kwenkathi yokuqalisa kwenkathi, futhi ugcine ngokuphumela ezinqumweni zeNkantolo. Lendlela ikhuthaza ukucabanga okugxekayo ngokomthetho, indima yesiqalo, kanye nencazelo enamandla yomthetho. Abafundi bavame ukusebenzisa i-molot enkantolo lapho abafundi bephikisana ukuthi isigaba esithile sokudlanga yini okuko, futhi kufanele bangene ngendlela enamandla ekuhlanganeni nezimpikiswano zomlando nefilosofi.

Ukuxhumana Nezinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule

I-Incorporation Doctrine ayiyona nje umlando. Izimpikiswano zanamuhla ngamalungelo eSichibiyelo sesibili ngemva McDonald v.Chicago (2010]) iphoqelela abafundi ukuba bacabangele ukuthi i-"fulinment" isho ukuthini enkathini ehlukile. Amalungelo enkathini yezibalo ngokuvamile ahilela imibuzo yokuthi ingabe amasu amuva ombuso amasuzimende amasha awententente indivanisa indinganiso ye-Grandementation. Ngisho nempikiswano ngesijeziso sokufa (impela iSiphendulo Seshumi Eline nesijeziso esingavamile) afakwa kanjani enkathini e ROBRBIN] v. (1862]) (1962]) abafundi bangabona ukuthi inqubo yokulawula izigwebo ezintsha ezinkantolo.

Ukuqaphela Nokuhlanganyela Kwe - covic

Mhlawumbe okubaluleke kakhulu, ukufunda ngokuhlanganiswa kwalendawo kusiza abafundi ukuba baqaphele ukuthi amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo awayona imiqondo ecatshangelwayo kodwa ayisivikelo esithinta ukuphila kwabo kwansuku zonke. Uma umfundi emiswa isikhulu sezemfundo, iSichibiyelo sesine (sihloselwe ukuthatha izikhulu zikahulumeni ngokuhlanganisa) sibusa leso senzakalo. Uma isishaya-mthetho ubheka umthetho ovimbelayo, izimiso zeSimemezelo sokuqala (esifakwe ku [FLT: 0]] Gitlow[ kanye ne[FLT]DOME DESONG ) ubeka imingcele. Lokhu kuqonda okusebenzayo kuveza imingcele.

Izisusa Zokufundisa Ngokuhlalisana Kwabantu

Imfundo yenkululeko ephumelelayo yangaphakathi idinga okungaphezu kohlu lwezenzakalo olulandelana ngezikhathi.

  • Ukuhlaziya okungokomdwebo: Abafundi baqhathanisa iBill of Rights (imingcele yeSishaya-mthetho) namandla ezwe ngaphambi nangemva kokuhlanganisa. Lokhu kuqokomisa ukushintshwa okukhulu kwe-pronistism yaseMelika.
  • Ukuququzelelwa kwezindlebe: Yabela amalungelo ahlukene (isib., Isichibiyeli sesibili, amajaji amakhulu, amajaji omphakathi) bese ucela abafundi ukuba baphikisane ngokuthi bayakwanelisa yini i-Cardozo's "ubulungisa obungokwezimo" indinganiso.
  • Umsuka wezingcaphuno: Sebenzisa izingcaphuno ezimfushane zemibono yengqopha - mlando (umz., UMahluleli Black's ukungavumelani Adamson[, Justice Cardozo in Palko]) ukucubungula ukwahlukana kwefilosofi phakathi kwengqikithi nendima ekhethekile.
  • Izinhlelo ezingokoqobo zezwe: Xoxa ngemithetho yamuva kazwelonke eye yabekelwa inselele ngokufakwa kwezindawo, njengemithetho ye-"anti-riot" noma i-Texas yokukhipha isisu (ehlanganisa ilungelo lokungena eseseni somuntu wedwa [1]a ilungelo elingakaze libalwe kodwa lifakwe nge-STED Procession Claus).
  • Umthetho-mthetho wezwe njengezindawo zokucwaninga: ukhuthaza abafundi ukuba bahlole izivikelo zomthetho-mthetho wombuso wabo. Imithetho-mthetho eminingi ivikela amalungelo ngaphezu kwesisekelo sikahulumeni./ifa eliqondile lokufakwa kwephansi/ukusebenza.

Impikiswano Eqhubekayo Nemibuzo Engaphenduliwe

Naphezu kokufinyelela kwayo okuseduze, i-Incorporation Doctrine isaqala impikiswano. Ezinye izazi zakuqala ziphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganisa ngokukhetha akunasisekelo somthetho-sisekelo esiqinile nokuthi amalungelo eSichibiyelo seshumi nane noma ama-Immunion's Claus(asekuqaleni kwakuhlongozwe ukuthi “‘ kufanele kuvuselelwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uMahluleli Clarence Thomas, uphikisa kaningana ukuthi iziNguqulo Zesibili nezesine zimelwe zihlanganiswe ngamalungelo omthetho noma nge-Immunicuniste Claus e-Clause kunokuba zifakwe i-"URRClassione .

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ubukhulu bamalungelo afakiwe busaphikiswana. Ingabe iSichibiyelo sesibili sihlanganisa ilungelo lokuphatha izibhamu obala? INkantolo Ephakeme yaphendula lowo mbuzo iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022], iphethe leyondawo kungase kungadingi "imbangela efanelekile" yokuphatha ilayisense efihliwe. Lesinqumo sincike ekuhlolweni kokuhlolwa okusungulwe McDonald[, ngokufanayo, iSimendo se-Agalelo se-8] esihlangeneyo siyaqhubeka sifuna ukuguqula njengemicimbi yeNka yeNkathi yezo nezindawo zasejele.

Ekugcineni, i - Incorporation Doctrine iphakamisa imibuzo ngendima efanele yejaji. Abagxeki bamangalela iNkantolo Ephakeme yezenzo zokwahlulela lapho iphoqelela ukuba ivumelane namalungelo ohulumeni, kuyilapho abasekeli bephikisa ngokuthi isivikelo esinjalo ngempela siyinjongo yeSichibiyelo se - 14. Lokhu kucindezeleka kwenza le mfundiso ibe indaba efanelekile yokuphikisana ngesimo sokuhlola kokwahlulela nesimiso sombuso.

Imithombo Yokuqhubeka Sitadisha

Othisha nabafundi abafuna ukujula okwengeziwe eMfundweni Yokuhlalisana kungasebenzisa lemithombo elandelayo:

Isiphetho: Imfundiso Ephilayo Yomthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo

I-Incorporation Doctrine ayiwona umthetho omisiwe kodwa inqubo enamandla eqhubeka ibumba inkululeko yaseMelika. Kusukela ezinqumweni zokuqala zonyaka ka-1920 kuya ezingxabeni zezibhamu zonyaka ka-202020, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa iSiphendu seSinqumo se 14 seSimo soMcimbiso seSikhulu se-Creatempment u-Expreme u-Claus ukuze yandise iSivumelwano samaLungelo kuzo zonke izingxenye zesizwe. Abafundi basebenzisa iSiko Lenkululeko yamazwe. Imfundiso inikeza i-lebulawuthi enamandla abafundi abangaqonda ngayo uhulumeni, incazelo yemithetho engokomthetho, kanye nokulwela ukuchaza amalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngokufunda i-Geneastlymentation Revolution, iqhubekelactivementation ifundisa ngomthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mforisoncral.