Isingeniso: Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Senqubo Efanele

Umqondo wenqubo efanele ungenye yezinsika ezihlala njalo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Isiqinisekiso sikaMagna Carta sithi akukho muntu okhululekile oyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kokwahlulelwa okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe, inqubo efanelekile iye yashintsha yaba isiqinisekiso esiqinile esihlangeneyo esibekwe eSiphendulweni somthetho-mthetho waseMelika sesihlanu. ISimemezelo sesihlanu sisebenza kuhulumeni wombuso, simemezela ukuthi akekho umuntu “ophunyuliwe ekuphileni, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” ISichibiyelo se-Gadetic, esigunyazwe ngemva kweMpi Yombathi, sinwe ukuvinjelwa okufanayo ezizweni. Zonke lezi zidinga ukuba zonke izinyathelo zikahulumeni zifanele, futhi ziqhutshwe ngokwezimiso ezingokomthetho.

Inqubo elindelekile ayiwona umqondo ongathi ngqo. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawuchaza njengendawo evikelayo yezindawo zombuso nezohulumeni bendawo njengesaziso, ukuzwa, nenkantolo engakhethiyo (nezivikelo ezivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneni kukahulumeni. Lokhu okubili kwenza inqubo yokuqala imoto esetshenziswa ngayo uhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo ngaphansi kwemfundiso yecala ukwahlulela [ inqubo efanelekile, isivikelo seyokuqala, esesihlanu, eyeSihlanu, eyesi-6th, neye-8, iziHlanu izigwebo ze-Relivectivedssss ezisebenza kuyo kuphela kuhulumeni, kushiye inqubo yombuso eshiya umsebenzi kahulumeni.

Ukuqonda indima yenqubo efanele enqubweni yokukhetha inqubo efakwayo kudinga ukujula kakhulu emlandweni, ekuhlolweni komthetho, nasemacaleni angokomthetho wezwe alolonga umthetho wanamuhla. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme eye yasebenzisa ngayo inqubo efanelekile ukuhlaziya iMicimbi Eqinisekisa Amalungelo Abantu “eyimfihlo” ngokwaneleyo ukubopha izizwe, ukuqinisekisa isakhiwo esiphansi esifanayo senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ezweni lonke.

Ukuqonda Ukukhetha Okubalulekile

Isivumelwano sokukhetha imfundiso engokomthetho eyavela ochungechungeni lwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kusukela ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesine nasekuqaleni kwamashumi amabili. Ngaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe iSichibiyelo seMinyaka Engamashumi Ane nesine ngo-1868, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuphela kuhulumeni kahulumeni, njengoba iqinisekiswa yicala Barron v. Baltimore[FL][FL:1]. Amazwe ayekhululekile ukudala izinqubo zawo siqu zobugebengu, isivikelo senkululeko yokukhuluma, kanye nempahla ngaphandle kwe-gumbinethi. ISinyukelele se-Promende, nenkambiso yayo engokomthetho yokusebenza kwelungelo elithile lombuso [FLT:] [FLD] [FFF] [FFFF] [5] nenkululeko yokukhuluma.[FFFFFFF] [FFF]

Imibono emibili encintisanayo yavela: ihlanganisa i-Bill of Rights createment kanye nokukhetha . Ingqikithi ihlangene, ivikelwa nguMahluleli Hugo Black, yaphikisa ukuthi iSimende seSimende seSimendo se 145 se-Clauscement Claus faka zonke izimemezelo zesenzo samalungelo , yenza zonke izivikelo zayo ezisebenzayo ezindaweni. Mnyama waqinisekisa ukuthi abakhi bomthetho we-14th Refeksionth Refection babefuna lomphumela. Nokho, iningi leNkanto ethatha lombono. Kunalokho, iNkanto engakhethi, icala elihlolwayo ngokomthetho ohlolwayo noma i-suntsme ukuthi “isimo se-sunt familyntion i-menty i-men i-men i-gemental quementsss of American.

I-Accomplition’s Accomplist’s Accomplicane ye 145, hhayi ama-Octive Claus noma ama-Immunion Claus. Nakuba i- 1873 Icala leNdlu yeNdlu ilinganisela kakhulu amalungelo noma i-Immunionism Claus, izinqumo kamuva zekhulu lama-20 zenziwa i-Clausse njengenjini yokungena. Umphumela uyi-payipile: kodwa hhayi zonke, zeMidla yomthetho manje zisebenza ezizweni. Isivikelo sesithathu sokuvikelwa kwe-Roundationsting amasosha esine, futhi i-Indaystle yafakwa kuphela ku-2010 [FFF:Mc.N.VFFFF]

Kungani Kufanele Ukhethe Kunokuba Uphelele?

Ukukhetha kweNkantolo ukuhlanganisa ngokukhetha kuvela ekuhlonipheni ubuzwe nokuhlolwa kukahulumeni. Amazwe aye asebenza ngokomlando njengezindawo zokucwaninga zentando yeningi, futhi ukufakwa kwelungelo ngalinye likahulumeni kungavimbela ukusungulwa kwelungelo lomthetho wobugebengu nenkululeko yomphakathi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umbhalo weSichibiyelo se 145 awukhulumi ngeSigqi Samalungelo Abantu; ukhuluma “ngenqubo engaphambili yomthetho.” INkantolo iye yachaza lamazwi njengendinganiso ethambile evikela amalungelo asekelwe emlandweni wesizwe namasiko, hhayi njengoluhlu lwezemisebenzi. ISivumelo sivumela iNkantolo ukuba ihlaziye izinga lamalungelo njengoba umphakathi uqala ukuphatha izikhali emashumini eminyaka angamashumi amabili namashumi amabili namahlanu ngemva kwengxoxo yenkulumo.

Indima Yenqubo Efanele Ekuhlobaneni

Inqubo elindelekile isebenza kokubili njengenqubo ye-procedal nendinganiso encinci yokukhetha. INkantolo Ephakeme ayibuzi nje ukuthi ilungelo livela yini kuyi-Bill of Rights; ibuza ukuthi lelolungelo liphelele yini emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe futhi libalulekile esimisweni somthetho esilungile. Lokhu kuhlola kusekelwe kumthetho we-Grast Procession Clause ngokwawo. Njengoba iNkantolo ichaze [FL:0] Palko v. Connecticut [197], ilungelo liyahlanganiswa uma “kukhona kanye uhlelo lwenkululeko egunyaziwe” futhi uma ukwephulwa kwayo bekungaba“ ukuphika okuyisisekelo kokulungangalungi.”

Lenqubo yokuhlaziya efanelekile inamacala amabili. Eyokuqala yinqubo efanele i-procedical producology [, elawula indlela imithetho egcinwa ngayo. Ngokwesibonelo, isichibiyeli sesithupha sokunikeza iseluleko siqinisekisa ukuthi ummangalelwa uthola inqubo yokuqulwa kobulungisa; iNkantolo ifake lelilungelo Gregon[[.][FLT] v [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[63]] [indlela ephikisayo], ngokucabanga ukuthi ukuqulwa okulungile akunakwenzeka ngaphandle kommeli. Inqubo esetshenziswayo njengenkululeko yokusebenza kwenkululeko, [[FLT]] [FLT] ifaka imvume engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho.[5]

“ Ukuqulwa Kwamalungelo Engqondo”

Ukuhlolwa kwamalungelo okuyisisekelo, okusungulwe ngenqubo efanelekile, kuyithuluzi eliyinhloko lokukhetha. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlola, iNkantolo ihlola ukuthi ilungelo “lisekelwe eqenjini lezehlulelweni le-Melika.” Lendinganiso ichazwe kabanzi ezicabeni eziningi ezivelele. Duncan v. Loisiana [1968] [iSimemezelo seSiphakamiso seSithandathu] [i-Simende]), esihlanganise i-Simende secala sokulunga emacaleni angathi sína enkantolo, iNkanto ekholelwa ukuthi ilungelo eliyilo libalulekile uma “lifanele umthetho wenkululeko yamaNgilane. INkanto ibheka umlando, isiko, nomkhuba wesikhathi esikhona ukwenza lokhu kuzimisele. Uma lolu hlelo luhlangene namazwi asebenza kanye nemithetho kahulumeni.

Ukuhlolwa okuyisisekelo kwamalungelo akusetshenziswa ngokomthetho. INkantolo icabangela injongo yelungelo, indima yayo ekuvikeleni isithunzi somuntu ngamunye, nokuthi ukungabikho kwayo kungalulaza ukufaneleka kwemithetho engokomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho weSine wokuhlukanisa izigwegwe wafakwa Mapp v. Ohio[FL:1] [1961] ngoba iNkantolo iphethe ukuthi ngaphandle kwayo, ilungelo elimelene nokuhlola okungacabangeli nokuquleka lizoba neze lingabi nanjongo ezingeni likahulumeni. Inqubo efanelekile yenza kanjalo njengomlindi wesango, iqinisekisa ukuthi lawomalungelo abalulekile ebulungisa kuphela adluliselwa ezikhundlekweni zikahulumeni.

Inkululeko Ehlelwe Kanye Nokuhlaziywa Komlando

Inkulumo kaJaji Benjamin Cardozo ethi “inkululeko” yaba yi-palko] i-alip elungele ukufakwa. Inkululeko ehleliwe ibhekisela esimisweni senkululeko elawulwa umthetho, lapho amalungelo evikelekile kodwa angaphelele. Ngokusebenzisa lendinganiso, iNkantolo iye yalahla indlela eqinile yokubhala. Kunalokho, ilinganisela ukubaluleka kwelungelo elimelene nesithakazelo sikahulumeni ekulondolozeni imvume. Isibonelo, iSiphendulo sesihlanu sivikelwe ngokuphindwa kabili kodwa asifakwangaphelele. Ngokusebenzisa lendinganiso, i-Benton. Mary v[FLT] [12:] [69] ngenxa yokuthi iNkanto eyenzekayo iNkanto ephindaphindiwe “inzima yokucindezelwa futhi ingenakuphikiswa." Inqubo yokugwetshwa ngokuqondisa inqubo efanelekile.

Ukuhlaziya ngokomlando kunendima futhi. INkantolo ivame ukuhlola ukuthi ilungelo lalibhekwa njengelibalulekile yini ngesikhathi sokubekwa kweSichibiyelo se 14th. Timbs v. Indiana (2029), eyahlanganisa iSimende Sezinyusi Sesishiyagalo-phambili Sendawo Esaqalayo u-Exploves Claus, iNkantolo yakhomba iMagna Carta, umthetho wezwe, nemithetho kahulumeni wakuqala ukubonisa ukuthi isivikelo ekuthatheni izimpahla ezinhle kakhulu kusuka kakhulu esikweni laseMelika. Lenqubo engokomlando i-mganetic transsion echaza i-Reletted Religimeternetics Clation ngenkathi yeshumi elinesine lesine, ivumela ukuchazwa okuqhubekayo.

Izindinganiso Ezingokomthetho Novivinyo: Kusukela EPalko Kuya EMcDonald

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kokukhetha i-Foctive common kungalandelelwa ngezindinganiso zomthetho ezimbalwa eziyinhloko. Ukufakwa kwemidwebo yokuqala enkulu kwavela ku- Palko v. Connecticut (1937]. Ngaleyondlela, iNkantolo yenqaba ukuhlanganisa izingozi zeSichibiyelo sesihlanu eziyingozi ezingenisweni, iphethe ukuthi amalungelo kuphela “avikelekile emqondweni wenkululeko evunyelwe”. UPalko wasungula uvivinyo lweprong: ilungelo kumelwe libe eliyisisekelo futhi ukwephulwa kwalo kumelwe ukuba kushaye unembeza. Lokhu kuhlola kwahlala kuyindlela evelele yamashumi amathathu eminyaka.

Ushintsho lwenzeka ngawo-1960 phakathi neNkantolo yaseWarren. Malloy v. Hogan (1964]), iNkantolo yahlanganisa ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzishintsha, ngokucacile ukulibeka phezulu [[FLT:]] V. [New Jersey[FLT][FLT]] [08]. INkantolo yashiya “indinganiso kanembeza” futhi esikhundleni sayo yasho ukuthi ilungelo liyahlanganiswa uma “kubalulekile ukuba kuqulwe ukuqulwa kwecala elilungile."" lokhu“ kuhlola ukuhlelwa kwecala." kufaka ukuhlelwa kwemidatha, kuholela ekulandeleni uchungechunge lwezimiso zokuhlanganisa inguquko, ukuhlanganisa inqubo yempoqoso-6.

Ku .Deuntan v. Louisiana [1968] [iNkantolo] yalungisa indinganiso futhi, isho ukuthi ilungelo libalulekile uma “lidingeka kuhulumeni wenkululeko yama-Anglo-American.] Lokhu kuhlelwa kwavumela iNkantolo ukuba ifake ilungelo ekuqulweni kwecala ngisho nakuba amanye amazwe avamile, njengaseBrithani, ayesebenzise amajaji ngokulinganiselwe ezicaleni ezincane. Ngaphansi kwalendinganisweni ezincane, iNkantolo ibheka indima yelungelo esimisweni sobulungisa saseMelika, hhayi nje imisuka yayo engokomlando. UDuan uyaqhubeka eyindinganiso elungile yokuqulwa kwejaji.

Muva nje, McDonald v. Chicago [2010], iNkantolo yahlanganisa ilungelo lesibili leSichibiyelo sokugcina nokuphatha izikhali ukuze umuntu azibeke ngokwakhe. Umbono wobuningi wasebenzisa “osekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni namasiko”, ukunanela inqubo efanelekile esetshenziswayo ekuhlaziyeni amalungelo angahlaziywanga. Lecala labonisa ukuthi ukuhlanganisa ngenqubo efanele kuseyimfundiso esebenzayo, evumelana nezincazelo ezintsha zomthetho wemithetho yeSishayamthetho. INkanto yaqinisekisa futhi ukuthi i-Gradimetersment i-Dault Claus iyisitele yokuvuselela, ukwenqaba ukuvuselela amalungelo noma izimpikiswano.

Amacala Abalulekile Enkantolo Ephakeme

Amacala alandelayo aphawulekayo abonisa indlela inqubo efanele eye yabangela ngayo ukuba abantu bakhethe inqubo yokusetshenziswa kwe - Bill of Rights, yandisa i - Greek of Rights ukuze ivikele abantu ekuphanjweni uhulumeni.

INew York (1925)

Ku Gitlow v. New York, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi inkululeko yokukhuluma yokuqala yeSichibiyelo isebenza ezizweni ngeSichibiyelo seSiphendu se 14th I-Claus. Nakuba uBenjamin Gitlow abekwa icala ngaphansi komthetho wezephulamthetho we-Igest commentation, iNkantolo icabanga ukuthi inkululeko yokukhuluma yayiyilungelo eliyisisekelo elivikelwe ngenqubo efanele. Lendaba yavula umnyango wamuva wahlanganisa amanye amalungelo eSichibiyeli Sokuqala, kuhlanganise nenkolo, cindezela, nenhlangano. Isinqumo siphawuleka ngenxa yokubekwa kwayo kwasekuqaleni kombono wokuthi i-The Reary Programme Clausclaus, ayikhuseli nje ivikela inkululeko ephansi.

Map v. Ohio (1961)

Mapp v.O. yahlanganisa umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine owenqabela ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi obutholakala ngokuphenywa okungacabangeleki nangokuqubuka kobugebengu. Ngaphambi kweMap, izifundazwe zingasebenzisa ubufakazi obungekho emthethweni. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi ngaphandle komthetho oweqayo, isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuhlola okungacabangeli singasho lutho ezingeni lombuso. Inqubo yadinga ukuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhiphe ubufakazi obungaphulwangakhohlakazeli ekulondolozeni ubuqotho besimiso somthetho futhi zivimbele ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa.

UGideon (1963)

Mhlawumbe icala elidume kakhulu lokuhlanganisa, Gideon v. Wainwright , wakholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo seSithandathu selungelo lokululeka sibalulekile futhi sisebenza ezifundazweni. UClarence Earl Gideon, isiboshwa saseFlorida, waphikisa ngokuthi ukuqiniseka kwakhe kwakungelusizo lwamandla ngoba wayephiwe ummeli. INkantolo Ephakeme yavuma, idlulisa isinqumo sayo sangaphambili [[FLT:] Bretts v. Brady[FLT][FLD] [192] [192]). INkantolo yathi “ehlelwe yisimiso sethu sokwahlulela kobugebengu, noma imuphi umuntu oye wangene enkantolo, ompofu kakhulu ukuba athole ummeli womthetho olungile, angeke aqinisekiswe ngaphandle kokuba anikezwe lesi sinqumo somthetho." isikhulu sesinqumo esishinswe ngomthetho esingokomthetho somthetho esingulwelwe abamelelwe yizikhulu.

Miranda v. e - Arizona (1966)

Mira v. Arizona yahlanganisa ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuziphikisa futhi yamisa izixwayiso ezidumile amaphoyisa okumelwe azinikeze ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola ilungelo lokungayeki. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi i-Sected Proces Claus ifuna ukuba kucaciswe ukuthi ilungelo labo lokuhlala bethule kanye nelungelo labo kummeli. Nakuba uMirnda aziwa ngokuyinhloko ngemithetho yayo engokwesiko, lesi sinqumo sisekelwe esimisweni esifanelekile sokuthi ukuphenywa kwemvume kufanelekile. INkantolo ifaka lezi sivikelo ukuze iqiniseke ukuthi noma isiphi isivumeniso esitholakalayo singesokuzithandela ngempela futhi sithembekile.

Ezinye Izenzakalo Eziphawulekayo

  • Benton v. Maryland (11969): Isivumelwano seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sahlanganisa ukwenqabela izingozi eziphindwe kabili, sisekela ukuthi siyisisekelo secebo lobulungisa laseMelika.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): ISichibiyelo sesithupha sahlanganisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lokwahlulela emacaleni angathi sína, simisa “indinganiso ehlelekile”.
  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Ihlanganise isichibiyeli sesibili lungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izingalo ukuze uzitholele i-ofense, usebenzise ukuhlolwa “okujulile”.
  • Timbs v. Indiana (2029): Ihlanganise iSichibiyelo se-Eighth Expressive Finds Claus, siqinisekisa indlela efanelekile engokomlando.

Lamacala abonisa indlela engaguquguquki: iNkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa inqubo efanelekile yokuhlaziya ukuze ibone amalungelo abalulekile enkululeko nasebulungiseni, bese iwasebenzisela ezizweni ngokukhetha. Lenqubo ithatha kancane futhi ngamabomu, iqinisekisa ukuthi isho ukuthi iyakwazi ukuvumelana nezimo ezindaweni ezingezona eziyinhloko kuyilapho isekela isisekelo sesizwe ngasinye sesivikelo.

Ukuziphikisa Kwangesikhathi Esizayo Nezimpikiswano Eziqhubekayo

Indima yenqubo efanele ekukhetheni ihlala iyindaba ephilayo. Izehlakalo zamuva ezifana ne- Ramos v. Louisiana [2020], eyahlanganisa imfuneko yeSiphazamiso seSithandathu sesinqumo samajaji esihlangeneyo somthetho ongathi sína, futhi i-Timbs v. Indiana[[FLT] [[FLT]] [209] [209]) ibonisa ukuthi imfundiso ayiphelelwangaphelelwanga semthethweni. Inkantolo iyaqhubeka incintisana ngemibuzo yokuthi imaphi amalungelo abalulekile okubopha izigaba. Ngokwesibonelo, i-8h Reconfmentationed Reconfied Reconfied Claillation ayifakwanga ngokugcwele; iNkanto evulekileyo [FF:]

Abagxeki abakhethayo ngokufakwa kweNkantolo baphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo isiye yaba umshisekeli omkhulu, izikhulu zikahulumeni okufanele zikhululeke ukuba zimise izinqubo zobugebengu. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanelekile kufanele yandiswe ukuze ihlanganise amalungelo angakasetshenziswa, njengeSichibiyelo sesithathu noma iSichibiyelo Sesibili seSichibiyelo semfuneko samabutho alawulwa kahle. Le mpikiswano ithinta nenqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo: Abanye abahluleli ababambelele ezingeni eliqinile baye bazwakalisa ukungaqiniseki ngokusebenzisa i-Cal Procession Clausce ukuze bahlanganise amalungelo angachazwanga ngokucacile kuyi-Bill of Rights, kuyilapho ibhekwa njengethuluzi elibalulekile lokuvikela inkululeko yangaphakathi.

Naphezu kwalokhu kungavumelani, isimiso esiyisisekelo sisalokhu silungisiwe: inqubo efanelekile yenqubo yomthetho-sisekelo eyenza ukuba kuvele ukuhlanganiswa. Ngaphandle kwayo, iBhili of Rights ibingaba isithembiso esiyize kubantu abaningi baseMelika, abasebenzelana ngokuyinhloko nohulumeni bendawo. ISichibiyelo se-Gradity Procession ye 145 Clausle siqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo awashiyelwanga ezindlini zomthetho-mthetho noma ezinkantolo zendawo.

Isiphetho: Ukuxhumana Okuhlala Njalo Phakathi Kwenqubo Efanele Nenkululeko Nganye

Ngamafuphi, inqubo efanele ayiyona nje inqubo esemthethweni elawula ukuhlanganiswa kwenqubo yomthetho-sisekelo. Ngokufuna ukuba noma yisiphi isinqumo esifanele esibekwe ezizweni sibe yisisekelo secebo lobulungisa laseMelika, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa inqubo efanelekile ukuze yakhe isiteshi senkululeko yomphakathi. Ukusuka enkululekweni yokukhuluma kuya elungelweni, kusukela ekubusweni kwesimiso sokuhlukanisa ukuya ekuthwaleni izikhali, isinqumo ngasinye sisekelwe enqubweni efanelekile yomlando, isiko, nokulunga.

Ukufakwa kwemithetho kuvumele iBill of Rights ukuba ivumelane nezimo ezishintshayo kuyilapho ibhekisele ekushintsheni kwe-socialism nenkululeko yombuso. Umphumela uyindikimba yomthetho enamandla evikela isithunzi somuntu ngamunye futhi iqinisekisa ubulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Njengoba kuphakama imibuzo entsha yomthetho-sisekelo (ngoba ingeyomuntu siqu, ukulandisa kwamaphoyisa, noma isigwebo sokufa) inqubo efanelekile izoqhubeka iqondisa iNkantolo ekunqumeni ukuthi imaphi amalungelo ayisisekelo kangangokuba kumelwe asebenze kubo bonke ohulumeni, uhulumeni nombuso ngokufanayo. Ukuqonda lendima kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda incazelo egcwele yenqubo yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko waseMelika.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola iSichibiyelo se-Forenth kuKhongolo.gov, uhlola izenzakalo zezimpawu ze-'] iproject [, noma hlola ukuhlaziywa komlando i-Cornell Legal Information’s qualition[.