ISichibiyelo sesihlanu se-United States Constitution simi njengensika ebucayi yeSigqizo samaLungelo, esiklanyelwe ukuvikela abantu ekuphathweni nguhulumeni futhi siqinisekise ukuthi kulungile phakathi kwesimiso somthetho. Ratimenswa ngo-1791, izigaba zaso ezinhlanu ezihlukene . iGrand Jury Clausle, i-Revidual, i-Revictive Jeopardy Claus, i-Uniacle, i-Uzime - Super - Infectration Claus, i-Unictive Claus, ne-Active Procesmesmes, kanye nokuthatha u-Calerry projective , i-face i-clective Claus, kanye ne-octivementation produmssssswork, i-igcompactive producernation, i-igconame elungiselelwe somphakathi wanamuhla, futhi i-unt, i-injini, i-injini enzinzinzinzinzi

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Nokukhishwa Kwemidanti

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu asizange siphume ekushayeleni. Izimpande zaso zibuyele emuva kumthetho wesiNgisi ovamile, kuhlanganise nesiqinisekiso sikaMagna Carta senqubo efanele nelungelo lomthetho ovamile lokumelana nokuziphikisa. OFata Abasungulwayo, baqaphela ukuxhashazwa ababenakho ngaphansi kokubusa kwaseBrithani − njengokufaka ubufakazi obuphoqelelwe kanye nokuqubuka okungalindelekile kwempahla − kwafaka isivikelo esicacile lapho kufakwa iMagnabers of Rights. UJames Madison wasikisela ekuqaleni ukuthi ukuncishwa kwemithetho emikhulu evimbela amandla kahulumeni, futhi kwavunyelwa kanye nezinye izigwegwegwe eziyisishiyagayo ezingu-9 ngo-1791.

Okubalulekile, ngokomlando omkhulu waseMelika, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sasisebenza kuphela kuhulumeni kahulumeni. Kwakungenjalo kwaze kwaba ukuncishiswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo-1868, futhi izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezalandela ekhulwini lama-20, ukuthi eziningi zezivikelo zaso “zafakwa” kumazwe nge-CS Procestion Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14. Le nqubo (jeke ) ebizwa ngokuthi i-frever Amendmentation [iSimende se-dende] yenza isiqinisekiso sawonke umuntu wonke eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isebenza nohulumeni, umbuso, noma iziphathimandla zendawo.

Isivikelo Ekuzichayeni

Ukuzibeka u-Islaus ngokuziphindiselela cishe kuyisici esiqashelwa kakhulu seSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ophoqelelwa kunoma iliphi icala lobugebengu ukuba abe ufakazi wokuziphikisa.” Lelilungelo livumela abantu ukuba benqabe ukuphendula imibuzo noma baveze ubufakazi obungaholela ekumangalelweni ngecala. Akugcini ngobufakazi enkantolo; akunakwenzeka ekuphenyweni kwamaphoyisa, ukuqulwa kwemithetho, nakumacala omthetho lapho izimpendulo zingadalula khona icala lobugebengu.

Umongo womlando uyalandisa. ENgilandi, eshumini nesikhombisa lekhulu lenkulungwane, iNkantolo yeStar Chamber nezinkantolo zesonto yaphoqelela abantu ukuba bafunge isifungo futhi baphendule imibuzo ebophulayo ngaphansi kwesigwebo se-prephery. AbaFramers bafuna ukuqeda imikhuba enjalo yokuvumelana, beqaphela ukuthi isimiso sobulungisa akumelwe siphoqelele umuntu ukuba anikeze ubufakazi obudingekayo ukuze athole ukuqiniseka kwabo siqu. Ilungelo lisebenza kakhulu kubantu abangokwemvelo kuphela, hhayi kwezinye izinhlangano noma ezinye izinhlangano ezingokwemvelo.

Isixwayiso Semirnda Nokuziphendukela Kwaso

Nakuba iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokuzivikela sona ngokwaso samiswa isikhathi eside, ukusebenza kwaso okusebenzayo phakathi nokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa okunakekela izingane akuzange kucaciswe ngokugcwele kwaze kwaba ngawo 1960. Endabeni evelele Miranda v. Arizona [1966], iNkantolo Ephakeme yaveza ukuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe asole ilungelo lawo lokuthula nelungelo lawo lokuba ahlale ememeze ummeli ngaphambi kwanoma yikuphi ukuphenywa kwemvume. Ukuhluleka ukwenza kanjalo kunoma yiziphi izixwayiso ezitholakala enkantolo. Isixwayiso esivamile esithi “Miranda" manje isiyingxenye evamile yenqubo yaseMelika.

Kodwa umthetho uvele. Izinqumo ezilandelayo zivele. Njenge Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010) no Salinas v. Texas (2011]) [2011])) u-Berghuis . U-Thomplik akumelwe akhiphe ilungelo; uma nje kuthule nje akunele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lelilungelo alikuvikeli ukukhiqiniswa kobufakazi obungokoqobo (umz., DNA, i-scanders] ngenxa yokuthi ubufakazi obunjalo abubonakali “ukuqamba okungalingani nakancane" esimweni. Lokhu kuqokomisa ukushukuma okuqhubekayo phakathi komthetho osebenzayo kanye nelungelo.

Ukunxusa Owesihlanu: Lokho Okukushoyo Ekwenzeni

Ukucela iSichibiyelo sesihlanu akukona ukuvuma icala. Eqinisweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme sekuyisikhathi eside ikholelwa ukuthi akukho ncazelo engathi sína engathathwa ekuthuleni kommangalelwa ecaleni lobugebengu. Nokho, emacaleni omphakathi, isimo asicaci kahle. Iqembu elisekela iSichibiyelo sesihlanu ecaleni lomphakathi lingase libhekane nemiphumela emibi, hlanganise nesahlulelo salo esiqondile socalula uhlangothi oluphikisanayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ilungelo lisebenza kunoma yimuphi umuntu ophoqelelwa ukuba athathe icala, kuhlanganise nokuzwa kwecala, ngisho nokuphenya kwezehlulele okukhulu.

Ilungelo lidlulela nangaphandle kobufakazi obudluliselwa ngomlomo. Lihlanganisa ukukhiqizwa kwezincwadi zomuntu siqu, amadili, nemibhalo egciniwe enikeza ubufakazi bemvelo. Amarekhodi ebhizinisi agcinwe ngomphathi oyedwa angavikelwa, kodwa amarekhodi enhlangano awavikelwanga. Ukuqonda lemingcele kubucayi kunoma ubani ongase azithole ephenywa noma engaphansi kwe-pona.

Ingozi Ekabili: Ukugcina Nokulunga

I-Bible Jeopardy Claus inikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa esichengeni esifanayo ukuze abekwe kabili engozini yokuphila noma isitho.” Lokhu kusho ukuthi uma ummangalelwa eselahlwe icala noma ebekwe icala, uhulumeni akanakuzithethelela ngecala elifanayo. Indinyana ivikela ekuhlukunyezweni, izindleko, nokucindezelwa okungokomzwelo kokuqulwa ngokulandelana kwecala futhi iqinisekisa ukuthi icala elingokomthetho linesiphetho esiqinisekile.

Nokho, lo mthetho awunqatshelwanga ngokuphelele. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu ophanga ibhange eliboshiwe futhi ophula imithetho yombuso angabhekana nezilingo ezihlukene. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ikhambi elibangelwa yisidingo esisobala (umk., ijaji elilengayo) alimlahli inkantolo.

I-gameter isebenza futhi ezijezisweni eziningi zecala elifanayo phakathi necala elilodwa. Uma inkantolo ikhipha isijeziso esingaphezu kwesilinganiso somthetho, esingase siphule lesi sigigaba. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza ukuthi “ukufa” ukuhlanganisa uma ijaji lifumbe isifungo noma ufakazi wokuqala ufungela ukuqulwa kwecala ebhentshini. Ukuqonda lokhu kuqonda isijeziso kubalulekile kubameli abavikela izigebengu nabashushisi ngokufanayo.

Inqubo Efanele: Idwala Lobulungisa

I-Gast Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu imemezela ukuthi akekho umuntu oyothi “aphucwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lena ingenye yezivikelo ezithatha indawo enkulu kakhulu kuMthetho-sisekelo. Iqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni ezithinta abantu ziqhutshwa ngokungakhethi, ngesaziso nangethuba lokuzwakala. Inqubo ihlukaniswa ngezigaba ezimbili: i-procedtural ne-secutive.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile idinga uhulumeni ukuba alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba anciphe umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Lezi zinqubo ziyahluka kuye ngomongo womthetho. Ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu, zihlanganisa ilungelo lokuqubuka ukuqulwa kwecala okusheshayo nomphakathi, nelungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, nelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko. Ezimisweni zokuqondisa, zingahlanganisa ukuqulwa, ilungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi, nomenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi. Isimiso esiyinhloko siwukuthi abantu kumelwe banikezwe isaziso esinengqondo kanye nethuba eliqotho lokuphikisa isenzo sikahulumeni.

Ngokwesibonelo, [[QLT:0] Goldberg v. Kelly (1970), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi abalamukela inhlalakahle banelungelo lokuzwa obala ngaphambi kokuba kuqedwe izinzuzo zabo. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi inqubo yokulungisa isebenza ezinzuzoni eziningi zikahulumeni, hhayi amalungelo empahla angokwesiko.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile engathi sína idlulela ngalé kwezinqubo futhi ivikele amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni nguhulumeni − ngisho noma izinqubo ezifanelekile zilandelwa. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa inqubo efanelekile edinga ukuthathwa ukuze ivikele izinqumo ezifiphele zomuntu siqu, njengelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo, nelungelo lokwenqaba ukwelashwa. Ivikela futhi izithakazelo zenkululeko ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni esiwuthandayo.

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo yenza izinkantolo zikwazi ukuhlukanisa ebhentshini, kuyilapho abasekeli bephikisa ngokuthi kubalulekile ukuvikela isithunzi somuntu ngamunye. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sisebenza ngokuqondile kuhulumeni wezwe, kodwa ngeSiphendulo se 144th sisebenza kumazwe. Inqubo efanelekile ephakathi kweprocedual ne-procedal ne-astanic ihlala iyindawo ephambili yempikiswano engokomthetho.

Umkhakha obalulekile nokubambisana okulungile

I-Piestores Claus − yaziwa futhi ngokuthi i-Eminient Coant domace Claus − izifunda ukuthi impahla yomuntu siqu “ayizukusetshenziswa umphakathi, ngaphandle kwenkokhelo.” Lelilungiselelo livumela uhulumeni ukuba aphoqelele ukuthengiswa kwempahla yomuntu siqu ukuze kwenziwe imisebenzi ezuzisa umphakathi, njengemigwaqo emikhulu, izikole, noma ipaki. Nokho, ifuna ukuba umniniyo athole inani elihle lentengo ngokushintshana.

Inkulumo ibangele impikiswano enkulu, ikakhulukazi ngokuthi yini eyakha “imisebenzi yasobala.” Kelo v. Idolobha laseNew London (2005], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi ukuthuthuka kwezomnotho kuyafaneleka njengokusetshenziswa komphakathi, ngisho noma impahla ithunyelwa kumthuthukisi wamuntu siqu. Lesi sinqumo sabangela ukuphambana, kuholele amazwe amaningi ukuba adlulise imithetho evimbela ukusetshenziswa kwendawo ephakeme yemisebenzi yomuntu siqu. Icala lihlala liyisisekelo sempikiswano ephathelene nempahla, amandla enkampani, nohulumeni wokukhohlakala.

Izinhlelo zezwe langempela lendawo edumile ziyahlukahluka kakhulu. Uma ipayipi, isitimela, noma i-atchiza idinga ukunqamula izwe langasese, uhulumeni uvame ukuthatha indawo ephezulu ukuze avikele isilinganiso esidingekayo, ngokukhokhela inxephezelo enqunywe yiziphaka, futhi uma kuphikiswana, inkantolo. Abanikazi bezindawo banelungelo lokubekela inselele kokubili isidingo sokuthatha nenani lokukhokha. Ukuqonda ukuthi u-Claus ubalulekile kubanini-mhlaba, amabhizinisi, nezikhulu zomphakathi ezihilelekile emisebenzini yezemisebenzi yezemisebenzi yezemisebenzi.

I - jury Clause Nezimemezelo Ezinkulu

IGrand Jury Clause ifuna ukuba “ngecala, noma ngenye indlela elibi kakhulu [s],” umshushisi kahulumeni angaqhubeka ngemva kokuba ijaji elikhulu likhiphe icala. Indikimba enkulu yamajaji(iqembu lezakhamuzi) (izwile ubufakazi obunikezwa umshushisi futhi inqume ukuthi kungenzeka yini ukuba kube nesizathu sokukholelwa ukuthi omangalelwe ubugebengu. Lomcaphulo awusebenzi ekumangaleleni uhulumeni (iNkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba ukubufaka Hurtado v. California, 1884]), kodwa abaningi bathi banezimiso zabo ezinhle zokucalula amajaji.

Ijaji elikhulu lisebenza njengesehlo ekwakheni amandla abashushisi, liqinisekisa ukuthi amacala awalethwa ngokusemthethweni. Nokho, abagxeki baphawula ukuthi amajaji amakhulu kakhulu acela abashushisi injoloba yenjoloba ngoba ezwa uhlangothi olulodwa lwecala futhi awaboshelwa imithetho eminingi esobala. Naphezu kwalokhu kugxekwa, iGrand Jury Clause ihlala iyisivikelo esingokomthetho sokuthi abamangalelwa ezicaleni zikahulumeni abangeke balahle.

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu Ekumangalelweni Kwanamuhla

Kulendawo engokomthetho yanamuhla, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu siyaqhubeka sidala izimpikiswano zokusika. Icala elihilela ukuzifihla kwamanani, ukuhlola kwezezigebengu, kanye nelungelo lokumelana nokuzimela kwezelele ezimhlophe kungokomthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme ibambene nokuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sivikela amagama ayimfihlo ayimfihlo noma isenzo sokuveza imibhalo eyimfihlo. United States v. Hubbell[[ [2000], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukwenziwa kwezincwadi okuphoqelelwe ukuba kugcinwe isiqinisekiso uma kudingeka ummangalelwa avume ukuba abe khona, abe nemali, abe neqiniso.

Enye indawo yanamuhla yokudlula kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokuthatha izinqubo zokufuduka. Abafowesi baye baqinisekisa ilungelo lokumelana nokuzimela ekususweni kwezindlebe, okuholela ekubuzeni okuyinkimbinkimbi ukuthi ukuthula kungasetshenziswa yini kubo. Ngokufanayo, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu seSiphendu se-Accompli se-Claus siceliwe ekubekeleni inselele ukuvalelwa okunganqunyiwe, ukuvalelwa komuntu yedwa, nezinye izimo ezinzima.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sivame ukucelwa izikhulu zomphakathi nabantu ngabanye phakathi nophenyo lwengqungquthela. Ukubizwa kwenombolo edumile yesihlanu ngezibalo ezinjengo-Oriver North phakathi nokuqulwa kwe-Iran-Contra futhi muva nje kubekwe abantu emibuzweni ehlukahlukene yemibuthano kubonisa ukubaluleka kwayo kwezombangazwe okuqhubekayo. Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo sesihlanu kubalulekile kubacosheli, abameli, abamisi bemithetho, kanye nezakhamuzi eziboshelwe ukukhokhwa.

Indlela Yokufundisa Ekufundiseni ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Abafundisi banethuba eliyingqayizivele lokwenza iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sibe nempilo kubafundi. Ngenxa yokuthi isivikelo saso sithinta izenzakalo eziphawulekayo zasenkantolo, izinqubo zamaphoyisa, nezingxabano zempahla, singena ezifweni ezingokwemvelo. Uhlelo oluqinile kufanele luthathe ikhanda lokukhumbula umbhalo wale nkathi futhi lukhuthaze ukucabanga okugxekayo ngezindleko nezinzuzo zayo.

Enye indlela enamandla ukusebenzisa ukuqulwa kwecala lokuzingela noma ukuvivinjelwa kwenkantolo esekelwe emacaleni angempela eNkantolo Ephakeme. Abafundi bangaphikisana nhlangothi zombili uMenda v. Arizona noma Kello v. Idolobha laseNew London[ bese bexoxa ngezihloko ezithi. Izimpikiswano ezinjengathi “uhulumeni umelwe avunyelwe ukuthatha indawo yentuthuko yangasese uma kwandisa intela?” noma “Ungasola ukuthi kufanele kudingeke ukuba unikeze izimfihlo eziyimfihlo zemishini efihliwe?"

Enye indlela iwukuhlaziya izikhangiso zemithombo yezindaba zokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa noma izimemezelo zeSichibiyelo sesihlanu ezidumile ezisemasikweni avamile. Abafundi bangabona lapho amalungelo osolwayo ephulwa futhi baxoxe ngalokho okuzokwenzeka. Ukuqhathanisa isimiso saseMelika namanye amazwe angenalo ilungelo lokuzilahla kungaveza imibono ebanzi.

Othisha futhi kufanele bagcizelele umongo ongokomlando, uhlanganisa ukushintshwa kokuhlangenwe nakho komsunguli ngaphansi kokubusa kweBrithani nezimpikiswano zanamuhla ngokuphathelene nokuqapha kanye namandla kahulumeni. Ngokuxhumana nesikhathi esidlule namanje, abafundi bangaqaphela ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu asisona isigcino esiyisidala kodwa siyisivikelo esiphilayo okumelwe sivikelwe futhi sichazwe kabusha.

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sihlala singenye yamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu okuvikela amalungelo abantu esimisweni somthetho waseMelika. Amalungiselelo aso ``ogrand jaguar, isivikelo engozini ephindwe kabili, ilungelo ngokumelene nokuzihlukanisa, inqubo efanele, kanye nembuyiselo yokuthatha i-(ukusebenza kanye), ukuqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni akanakumncisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Nakuba umbhalo ngamunye uloliwe ngeminyaka eminingi yencazelo yokwahlulela noshintsho lwezenhlalakahle, izimiso eziyisisekelo zihlala. Abafundisi, abafundi, nezakhamuzi, ukuqonda okujulile kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu akuyona nje imfundo nje; kuyisidingo esiwusizo sokuvikela inkululeko nobulungisa. Ngokufunda umlando wawo, ukwazisa ukulinganisela kwawo, nokusebenzisa izifundo zawo ezinkingeni zamanje, sidumisa umbono womthetho omisiwe nowokuqinisa umthetho.

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