Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ze-United States zinesikhundla esinamandla kakhulu esimweni sokubusa kwesizwe. Ngegunya lazo lokuchaza imithetho yomthetho-sisekelo ne-guvene, zihlela njalo (nenye izikhathi) futhi zihlela futhi nezimiso zendawo phakathi kwezimpikiswano eziningi. Lesi sihloko sihlola izindlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezithonya ngazo umbuso nezokubusa kwendawo, kusukela ekuhloleni kokwahlulela nasekubekeni isinqumo sokugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ukuqonda lamandla kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda indlela umthetho nezimiso ezisebenza ngayo esimisweni sikahulumeni.

Ukuqonda Isimiso Senkantolo Yomphakathi

Ijaji likahulumeni limiswa yi-Agarti III yoMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. futhi lisebenza eduze kwezimiso zenkantolo yombuso. Lihlelwe ngezitebhisi ezintathu, ngalinye elinemithwalo yemfanelo ehlukile:

  • Inkantolo yesigodi yase-U.S.: Izinkantolo zamacala lapho amacala kahulumeni eqala khona. Kunezifunda ezingu-94 kulo lonke izwe, ngayinye isingatha izindaba zomphakathi nezezigebengu eziphakama ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni.
  • U.S. Courts of Appeals (Izinkantolo Zesifunda): zihlukene zaba izifunda eziyi-13, lezinkantolo ezithathayo zibukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda ezisezweni zazo. Ngokuvamile ziyisigqizo sezicelo eziningi zikahulumeni, njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme izwa ingxenyana encane yamacala.
  • Inkantolo ye-United States: Inkantolo yokugcina. Inegunya lokulawula izikhalo eziningi futhi imithetho yayo ibopha kuzo zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi nombuso.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zilawula amacala ahlanganisa umthetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-sisekelo, izimpikiswano phakathi kwezifundazwe, namacala lapho i-United States iyilungu. Lokhu kunikeza igunya eliqondile ezindabeni ngokuvamile ezihlangene nesimiso sombuso nesendawo.

Umtapo womtholalwazi Onethonya Lokwenqabela

Izinkantolo ezizimele zimisa isifundazwe nezimiso zendawo ngemisebenzi emithathu eyisisekelo: ukubukezwa kokwahlulela, isinqumo sempikiswano ephakathi kohulumeni, nokuvikelwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye. Umsebenzi ngamunye unemiphumela ephawulekayo ngendlela izifunda nezindawo ezibusa ngayo.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela − igunya lokushaya imithetho ephula uMthetho-sisekelo − yamiswa ku- Marbury v. Madison (1803]). Kusukela ngalesosikhathi, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasebenzisa lamandla ukuze ziqede imibuso engenakubalwa nemithetho yendawo. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo ziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zivumelana noMthetho-mthetho, imithetho kahulumeni, nezivumelwano.

  • Imithetho yoMbuso ephikisana namandla kahulumeni ezentengiselwano (umz., Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824]).
  • Imithetho kahulumeni ephula inkululeko yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala (isib., Imithetho ehlangene v. FEC, 2010, nakuba icala lithinta umthetho kahulumeni; imithetho yezezimali kahulumeni ibekwa inselele kaningi).
  • Izenzo zikahulumeni eziphula iSivikelo esilinganayo noma iNkathi ka-Claus (umzk., Ukusuka v. Virginia, 1967, eyaqeda ukuvinjelwa kombuso emshadweni wezinhlanga).

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela akugcini ngokushaya imithetho; futhi izinkantolo zisekela imithetho kahulumeni lapho zidlulisa ukuhlangana komthetho - sisekelo. Lokhu kugunyazwa kungaqinisa igunya likahulumeni futhi kunikeze ukucaca ekumisweni kwezimiso esikhathini esizayo.

Ukuxazulula Izingxabano Ezibangelwa Uhulumeni

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenza njengezingathathi hlangothi ezimpikiswaneni phakathi kwezifundazwe noma phakathi kukahulumeni nohulumeni. Ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III, iNkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokuqala emacaleni aphakathi kwezwe, kodwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi zivame ukuzwa izimpikiswano ezihlobene. Izibonelo zihlanganisa:

  • Izingxabano zamalungelo amanzi phakathi kwezifundazwe (umzk., [[FLT: 0] TEXS v. New Mexico, iyaqhubeka i-litugate ngeRio Grande).
  • Izinselele zokumisa imithetho okuthiwa ithwesa izimpahla zezentengiselwano zamazwe angaphandle, njengemithetho kahulumeni yokulahla amaloli noma udoti.
  • Izimpi ngokuhlehliswa komthetho kahulumeni ngemithetho kahulumeni, njengemithetho yokugcinwa kwabantu bengena kwamanye amazwe kahulumeni ebekwe umthetho kahulumeni wokufuduka (umz., Arizona v. United States, 2012).

Lemithetho icindezela noma yandisa izindlela zokukhetha ezikhona zokubusa nohulumeni bendawo, ngokuvamile ifuna ukuba bashintshe izinhlelo zokulungisa noma bayeke izindlela ezithile zokuqondisa.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziyinkundla eyinhloko yokumisa amalungelo omthetho-mthetho ngokumelene nesenzo sombuso nohulumeni wendawo. IBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe kuphela, kodwa ngemfundiso ehlanganisayo yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, isivikelo esiningi manje siyasebenza ezifundazweni. Izindawo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Inqubo engathi ikhona: ISine, isiHlanu, isiHlanu, nesi-8h Isichibiyeli, njengahlanganisiwe, kudinga ukugcinwa kombuso nomthetho wendawo ukuba kulandele imithetho eqinile ngokuphathelene nokuphenya, ukuphenya, nokulingwa. Imicimbi yokuphawula enjengo imanda v. Arizona [196] kanye .]
  • Inkululeko Yokukhuluma noMhlangano: Izinkantolo zihlola njalo isifundazwe nemithetho yendawo ebhikishayo, izimali zomkhankaso, kanye nenkulumo yomphakathi. Cohen v. California[ [19971] kanye [[FLT] ... `Synder v. [20] [2011]
  • [[FLT: 0] Isivikelo esiphezulu: ISiphakamiso seSichibiyelo seshumi nane siye saqhube ushintsho emfundweni, endlini, emsebenzini, nasekuvoteleni. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954] ihlala iyisibonelo se-iconic, kodwa izinqumo ezilandelayo ziye zandisa isivikelo ku LBTQ, abantu ngabanye, ukukhubazeka, nabanye.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziphoqelela futhi imithetho engokomthetho yamalungelo abantu, njengeSihloko VI soMthetho wamalungelo omphakathi ka-1964, i-IX yeSimemezelo sezemfundo sango-1972, kanye namaMelika aphethe uMthetho wokukhubazeka. Lemithetho inikeza abantu ilungelo lokumangalela izifundazwe nezindawo ezifuna izinqubo zobuhlalo.

Ithonya Ezindaweni Ezithile Zokuqamba

Kunezikhungo eziningana lapho izinqumo zokwahlulela ziye zaba nemiphumela enamandla khona ngokukhethekile.

Imfundo

Izinkantolo zikaFederal ziye zaba isikhungo sokulungisa isimiso semfundo yomphakathi. Ngemva Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[, izinkantolo zaqondisa iziyalezo zemfundo ezifuna ukuba izinhlelo zesikole ziqondise abafundi, zidwebe kabusha izifunda ezifundayo, futhi zisebenzise izinhlelo zikazibuthe. Kamuva kubhekiswe kuzo:

  • Iziqu ezinokukhubazeka: iBoard of Education v. Rowley (19982]) kanye no-Awenu no-Awenu ophethe i-Education Act (IDEA) idinga izikhawu zokunikeza imfundo yomphakathi efanelekile ekhululekile kubantwana abakhubazekile. Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziqinisekisa lemiyalo.
  • Ukuxhasa ngemali elinganayo: [iNkantolo Ephakeme] inqaba ukuthola ilungelo elingokomthetho lokuxhasa isikole ngokulinganayo San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [7773]), inkantolo yesifundazwe ishoshoshoza ngaphansi kwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Nokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisazwa izinselele zokusekela izinhlelo zemithetho yenkululeko yomphakathi.
  • Ukukhuluma nokuyala: . .Des Moines Independent School District [1969]) yaqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi abawachithi amalungelo abo okuHlaziywa kokuqala esangweni lesikole. Ngokulandelayo imithetho icwengisise imingcele yenkulumo yomfundi, kuhlanganise ne-ctus e-pane.
  • Isihloko IX: izinkantolo zeFederal zichaze isihloko se-IX ukuba zifune izikole ukusingatha ukuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili nokuhlaselwa, njengaku Davis v. iMonroe County Board of Education (1999) kanye Gebser v. Lagosta Independent School Distric [1998]. Lezi zinqumo zaphoqelela izifunda zesikole ukuba zisebenzise izinqubo ezithile zokukhalazelo.

Ukunakekelwa kwempilo

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA) yabangela igagasi lemithetho yokulawula impilo yezwe ngokuqondile. National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius [20], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela igunya lomuntu ngamunye njengentela kodwa yenza ukwanda okungakhethelwanga ngokwezimo zokunakekela impilo. [FULT:] uhulumeni u-National awanakugodlela zonke izimali ze-Medicaid ezikhona zezingasetshenziswa yintengo zezentengiso. Inkosi Bur Burn's's Médiat [FFFLT:] (20) iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni wawungawayikhonzile ukukhokha izimali zentengo yokwanelo lwezentengo yazo.

Izinkantolo zikaFederal ziye zabukeza imithetho yesifunda yokukhipha isisu, kuhlanganise nezikhathi zokulinda, imithetho yomnyango, nemithetho egunyaza ukuxhaswa kwemali. [[FLT Women’s Health v. Hellerstedt [20], iNkantolo yahlola iTexas evimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu njengemigoqo engafanele ngaphansi [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT]]. Casey [[FLT:] [3] [19] [19] [19]. muva nje, [[FLT:]] Dobs.V. Jackson’s Health Organization [FL:] [FLT] [FLT] [impompompompoza umthetho wasendaweni yasekhaya], futhi unyuse umthetho wasendaweni yasekhaya.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nokuphanga

Izinkantolo zikaFederal ziye zasiza ekuthuthukiseni amalungelo ezakhamuzi emacaleni aphathelene nokuvota, ukucwasa, nezenzo zamaphoyisa. IVoting Rights Act ka-65 (VRA) iye yaba yindaba ehlotshaniswa njalo. [Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi] ku-Shelby County v. UHarer[[FLL:1]] [202013], iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqeda indlela yokukhombisa yokubhalisa, ikhulula imibuso eminingi efunwayo ukuze ithole imvume kahulumeni yokuthola imithetho yokuvota. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, izinkantolo zezwe ziye zabukeza imithetho emisha ye-ontathe ye-R.

Embusweni wamaphoyisa nokwahlulela kobugebengu, izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni bendawo ziye zabeka icala ngemikhuba engekho ngokwezimiso. Ngokwesibonelo, Monell v. uMnyango Wezenkonzo Zomphakathi [1988]) wasungula ukuthi omasipala bangamangalelwa ngaphansi kweSigaba 1983 ngemithetho engokomthetho ebangela ukwephulwa komthetho-mthetho. Izinkantolo nazo ziye zafaka imithetho egunyaza ukudinga amaphoyisa ukuba asebenzise izinguquko, njengase-Foverguson, eMissouri, nase-Baltimoreland, eMaryland.

LGBTQ+ amalungelo aye alolongwa kakhulu yizinqumo zenkantolo kazwelonke. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi imibhangqwana efanayo ehlangeneyo inelungelo lomthetho-wegazi lokushada, ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho kahulumeni okungagunyaziwe. Bostock v. County[Clayton County [[FLT:]]] [202020]) isivikelo sesihloko se-VII esisekelwe ekucacisweni kwemizwelo yobulili nasobulili, ithinta umbuso nezimiso zomsebenzi wendawo. Lezi zibophaka ukukhipha ilayiselo layisense yemishano nokuhla abantu ngabanye emsebenzini, emakhaya, empilweni yempilo.

Ukubuyiselwa Kwendawo Ezungezile

Izinkantolo ze-Frederal zivame ukunquma izinga legunya lezwe nelomphakathi. I-Ceather Air Act and Clean Water Act ivame ukufika ezinkantolo, lapho abahluleli bechaza ukuthi izindinganiso zikahulumeni ziyini imithetho kahulumeni ekhucululwayo noma ukuthi imibuso ingathatha imithetho eqinile. Amachapusetts v. EPA [2007] [iNkakhulu] [2007], iNkantolo ephakeme yeNkantolo isekela ukuthi i-EPA kumele ilawule amagesi ashisayo ngaphansi kwe-Cheat Act, ishaya inqubo yezomoya kahulumeni. Ngokuphikisanayo, [[FLT:] Weschactive Virginia v. EPA[FLT][FLT3][2] [2] [2][202])2]

Izwe elisetshenziswayo nezinqumo zokwakha futhi lithinta izinkantolo zikahulumeni, ikakhulukazi uma kuphakama amalungelo empahla. Ukuthatha u-Claus weSichibiyelo sesihlanu, okusetshenziswa ezindaweni ngeSichibiyelo se 144, kuye kwaba isisekelo semithetho efuna imbuyiselo lapho imithetho iqhubeka kakhulu. Kelo v. City of New London (2005], iNkantolo isekela ukusetshenziswa kwendawo ephakeme yezentengiselwano yezezomnotho, ibangela ukusabela kwezwe kwezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano.

Izinselele Nezikhungo Ezihlangene Ezizungeze Ithonya Lokwahlulela

Izimpikiswano ezimbili ezihlala njalo zigxile ekuthatheni isigwebo sokwahlulela ngokumelene nokunqanda nokushintsha inqubo yokumisa.

Imithetho Yokwahlulela imelene

Abagxeki bavame ukusola abahluleli bamazwe ngokuphula indima yabo ngokwenza izinqumo zezimiso ebhentshini. Izenzo zokwahlulela zibhekisela ezinqumweni ezibonakala zisekelwe emibonweni yomahluleli siqu kunokuba zisekelwe embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo noma wemithetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lapho izinkantolo zishaya imithetho ye-demokrasi ebekwe umthetho, ziyasilulaza isinqumo sokuzilawula. Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [Roe v. Wade [773]) [72] kwakuyisisulu salokhu kugxekwa. Ngokuphikisanayo, ukuvinjelwa kwenkantolo ukuthobela izinkantolo ngaphandle kokuba umthetho uwe ngokucacile umthetho uphula umthetho umthetho. [FLT:] Klovelson v.[2]

Abasekeli bobuProfethi baphikisa ngokuthi izinkantolo kumelwe zivikele amalungelo amancane ezikhundleni ezidumile − umsebenzi oyinhloko wokwahlulela.

Ukuhlonishwa Kokumiswa Kokwahlulela

Inqubo yokumisa amajaji kahulumeni, ikakhulukazi amajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme, iye yaba nenhlanganyelo enkulu. Izimpi zamuva zokuqinisekisa zeMerrick Garland ngo-2016, uBrett Kavaugh ngo-2018, u-Amy Coney Barrett ngo-202020, noKetanji Brown Jackson ngo-2022 ngo-2022 . Ngokuphakama kokukhanya okuphezulu ukuthi imibono yezombangazwe iwuguqula kanjani ummeli wejaji. Abagxeki bakhathazekile ngokuthi lokhu kunciphazanyiswa kwecala kuqeda ukwethemba umphakathi ezinkantolo futhi kuholela ekunqumeni okuvumelana nezindawo zesigaba kunokuba kuthathe isimiso somthetho.

Ukumiswa kwenkantolo ephansi nakho kubalulekile. Amajaji esifunda nesifunda manje avame ukuba namarekhodi aqinile emibono ngaphambi kokuphakama kwezindawo, futhi izinqumo zabo ngezimiso zikahulumeni nezendawo ziveza leyo mibono. Ukuvela “kokubekwa kwecala” njengempikiswano yomkhankaso kusho ukuthi ukwakhiwa kwebhentshi likahulumeni kungashintsha ngokuphawulekayo kuye ngokuthi yimaphi amaqembu alawula iWhite House neSigele.

Enye impikiswano ihilela ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho yezwe lonke − i-courtount oyalela ukuba kuvinjelwe isimiso sikahulumeni kulo lonke izwe. Lemithetho, ngokuvamile ekhishwa abahluleli besifunda ababodwa, iye yasetshenziselwa ukunqanda izenzo zokuphatha ekuthuthweni kwezindawo, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, kanye nemithetho yezempilo yomphakathi. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi bavumela umahluleli oyedwa ukuba athathe izinqumo zikahulumeni nezimiso zendawo, kuyilapho abavikeli bethi kudingekile ukuvimbela ukulimala okungalungiseki.

Isiphetho

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinamandla ekulolongeni isifundazwe nezimiso zendawo, zisebenza ngezimiso zomthetho-mthetho zokuhlola, ukuphikisana, nezimiso zamalungelo. Izinqumo zazo zithinta zonke izici zokubusa − kusukela endleleni izikole ezifundisa ngayo ukunakekelwa kwezempilo, indlela amazwe alawulayo amaphoyisa emigwaqweni yawo. Nakuba leli thonya ngokuvamile lidingeka ngayo ukuze kusekelwe izimiso zomthetho-mthetho, liphakamisa futhi ukukhathazeka okungokomthetho ngendima efanele yabahluleli abangahleli embusweni wentando yeningi. Izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngokuphathelene nefilosofi yokwahlulela nezombangazwe ezimisiwe ziyo ziyoqhubeka zichaza izinga namandla omthetho womthetho womthetho wezwe iminyaka eminingi. Kubenzi bemithetho, abafundisi, izakhamuzi, nokuqonda ukudlalwa phakathi kwezinkantolo zombuso nohulumeni zibalulekile ekukhipheni umthetho wezwe laseMelika.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-website e-Quert yeNkantolo Ephakeme, i- Legal Information eCornell Law School [, kanye [[FLT]OYEZ[[[FLT:]] [FLT]] [u-5] emalunga nokufushanisa nezimpikiswano zomlomo.